Touring Machine Company

It is surprisingly difficult to find documentation on the FAA and NOAA websites that explicitly state wind direction as either true or magnetic. Everyone knows that the wind direction in local reports, ATIS and automated weather are reported with reference to magnetic north. “Long-lines” reports, METARs, TAFs, Winds Aloft, etc. are given with reference to true north. It is probably less commonly known that wind direction for PIREPs is magnetic.

True versus magnetic makes a lot of sense when you think about it. When you’re landing, you want to know the wind direction relative to the runway—which is magnetic. When planning flights, you don’t necessarily know the magnetic deviation of each location where you are getting wind reports, so getting the report relative to true north works best.

When ATC (tower or enroute) gives you wind direction it will be magnetic. From Order JO 7110.65T

l. “Course,” “bearing,” “azimuth,” “heading,” and “wind direction” information shall always be magnetic unless specifically stated otherwise.

The instructions for creating the ATIS include this note:

ASOS/AWOS is to be considered the primary source of wind direction, velocity, and altimeter data for weather observation purposes at those locations that are so equipped. The ASOS Operator Interface Device (OID) displays the magnetic wind as “MAG WND” in the auxiliary data location in the lower left-hand portion of the screen. Other OID displayed winds are true and are not to be used for operational purposes.

Wind direction for the ATIS is found in the Aeronatical Information Manual (AIM)

AIM 4−1−13. Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)

ATIS information includes the time of the latest weather sequence, ceiling, visibility, obstructions to visibility, temperature, dew point (if available), wind direction (magnetic), and velocity, altimeter, other pertinent remarks, instrument approach and runway in use.

Also from the AIM,

AIM 4-3-6. Use of Runways/Declared Distances

a. Runways are identified by numbers which indicate the nearest 10-degree increment of the azimuth of the runway centerline. For example, where the magnetic azimuth is 183 degrees, the runway designation would be 18; for a magnetic azimuth of 87 degrees, the runway designation would be 9. For a magnetic azimuth ending in the number 5, such as 185, the runway designation could be either 18 or 19. Wind direction issued by the tower is also magnetic and wind velocity is in knots.

Both controllers and pilots should use magnetic directions in their communications unless the explicitly state that they are using true.

Just in case you aren’t familiar with the term azimuth, it is usually denoted alpha, α, and defined as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a north base line.

Section 2. Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques
4-2-10. Directions

The three digits of bearing, course, heading, or wind direction should always be magnetic. The word “true” must be added when it applies.

Wind direction for PIREPS is found in Order JO 7110.10U

i. /WV. Wind direction and speed. Encode using three digits to indicate wind direction (magnetic) and two or three digits to indicate reported wind speed. When the reported speed is less than 10 Kts use a leading zero. The wind group will always have “KT” appended.

Computing Magnetic Wind Direction from ASOS and AWOS.

The National Weather Service (NWS) has received several inquiries concerning the computation of magnetic wind reports from the Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS). ASOS encodes wind reports with respect to true north in all METAR and SPECI reports, the 5-minute observations, and for use in the daily weather summary. Magnetic winds are broadcast from the Ground-To-Air (GTA) radio, appended to the 5-minute observations, and available on several video displays.

ASOS computes the true 2-minute average wind, adds or subtracts the magnetic declination for the site, and then rounds the wind direction to the nearest 10 degrees. If the site has an east magnetic declination it is subtracted from the true direction and a west declination is added to the true direction. A way to remember this rule is: East is least (subtracted declination) and west is best (added declination).

In Figure 1 the magnetic declination is 10 degrees to the east. If the wind is measured having a direction of 360 degrees true, the magnetic wind would have a magnetic direction of 350 degrees, i.e., 360-10 = 350. In other words, if you were using magnetic north as your frame of reference, the wind would be blowing from a direction 10 degrees west of magnetic north, i.e., 350 degrees magnetic. Likewise, a wind with a true direction of 090 degrees would have a magnetic direction of 080 degrees magnetic.

Figure 2 shows the case where the declination is 15 degrees to the west. If the wind has a direction of 360 degrees true and if your frame of reference is magnetic north, then the wind is really blowing from the direction of 015 degrees magnetic. Keep in mind that at this site true north is 015 degrees magnetic.

The last case is a site with a magnetic declination of zero degrees. In this case true north and magnetic north are the same and no corrections are necessary.

Other Wind Information

AIM 7-1-4. Preflight Briefing
7. Winds Aloft. Forecast winds aloft will be provided using degrees of the compass. The briefer will interpolate wind directions and speeds between levels and stations as necessary to provide expected conditions at planned altitudes. (Heights are MSL.) Temperature information will be provided on request.

NOAA has A Pilot’s Guide to Aviation Weather Services which includes this section:

WIND and TEMPERATURE ALOFT FORECASTS (FD) are 6, 12, and 24-hour forecasts of wind direction, speed, and temperatures for selected altitudes to 53,000 feet MSL at specified locations. Direction is relative to true north rounded to the nearest 10 degrees. Speed is in knots. Temperatures aloft (in degrees Celsius) are included with wind data for all but the 3000-foot MSL level and those levels within 2500 feet of the ground. Temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are always negative. Winds at other locations and altitudes can be obtained by interpolation.

And their Glossary includes this:

Wind Direction
The true direction from which the wind is blowing at a given location (i.e., wind blowing from the north to the south is a north wind). It is normally measured in tens of degrees from 10 degrees clockwise through 360 degrees. North is 360 degrees. A wind direction of 0 degrees is only used when wind is calm.

NOAA also puts out the ASOS: Automated Surface Observing System GUIDE FOR PILOTS through the National Weather Service.

WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED: Direction in tens of degrees from true north (first three digits);

Their guide to METARs and TAFs gives an example of decoding a METAR and states

Wind: 3 digit true-north direction, nearest 10 degrees (or VaRiaBle); next 2-3 digits for speed and unit, KT

A good way to remember whether the winds are magnetic or true is that if you hear it or say it, they are magnetic. If you read it, they are true. The only exception is if you are talking to flight service. In that case they are reading the information to you and not translating to magnetic when they do so.

I’ve covered this in other posts, but just for my own use, I thought it would be nice to put together a list of things I need before starting the annual.

Parts

032 gauge safety wire for Oil Filter
Oil Filter
Air Filter
Spark Plug Gaskets
Cotter Pins for Main Wheels
Battery for ELT if necessary
AAA Batteries for Headset and Flashlights

Consumables

1 small container of blue-label GoJo for cleaning the belly and hands
2 old wash cloths for applying GoJo
2 toothbrushes for getting GoJo in the cracks
3 rolls of Bounty paper towels
1 handful disposable gloves
1 yogurt cup for soaking spark plugs
1 handful rubber bands for keeping seat belts out of the way
2 garbage bags
1 plastic grocery bag or freezer bag for removing oil filter

Tools

Make sure no one has borrowed these.
Compressor
Shop Lights
Jacks
Borescope
Ladder for checking the tail

Things from Home

Battery Powered Screwdriver
Tri-Flow
Handheld Radio for Checking ELT
Camera/iPad for remembering how things go back together

Miscellaneous

$20 Gift Card at Hardware Store

NASA and NOAA have several aircraft that fly right into the eye of a hurricane to gather data so that forecasters can plot its course. Here’s the track of one of them on October 7th.

Airworthiness Directives (ADs), Special Airworthiness Information Bulletins, and Service Bulletins three ways in which information about aircraft safety is communicated to owners of aircraft. They are different things with different implications depending on which rules you are flying under. For general aviation aircraft that are flown under Part 91 of the FARs you must comply with ADs in order for your aircraft to be airworthy. i.e. if you haven’t complied with the AD (and that includes documentation) then in the eyes of the FAA and your insurance company your aircraft is not airworthy. For Part 91 operators, SAIBs and Service Bulletins are advisory—even though many SBs say in their text that they are mandatory.

It is a tremendous amount of work to read through all of the ADs that might be applicable to an aircraft to determine whether it applies to that specific aircraft. Several companies make software that IAs can use to simplify the process. (My IAs use Tdata.) The IA puts the serial number of the aircraft, engine, alternator, magnetos, oil cooler, etc. into the software and the software goes through the tedious process of determining which ADs apply to that particular aircraft. The owner or IA can then go through the logbooks and determine which ADs have been complies with. The software prints out a record of compliance that the IA signs and it is incorporated into the logbooks. This process is required at every annual inspection in order for the inspection to be signed off on.

Service Bulletins on the other hand are not issued by the FAA but instead are issued by the manufacturer of the part in question. It is up to the IA and the operator whether or not to comply with them. For example, SERVICE BULLETIN No. TP-14 Rev. 3 claims that replacement of Parker Hannifin vacuum pumps is mandatory. It is not. Only the FAA can mandate replacement of parts and then only by issuing an AD.

In between ADs and SBs are Special Airworthiness Information Bulletins (SAIB). “They are an information tool that alerts, educates, and makes recommendations to the aviation community. SAIBs contain non-regulatory information and guidance that does not meet the criteria for an Airworthiness Directive (AD).” As an owner/operator you should be aware of them and determine whether compliance is warranted. For example, SAIB: CE-14-23 was issued for Piper aircraft to alert A&Ps to a potential unsafe condition on inlet hoses. The inlet hoses for the carb look a lot like regular scat tubing that is used elsewhere in the engine. Unfortunately, scat tubing isn’t as rigid as inlet hose and it can collapse and cause the engine to quit from lack of air. Piper noticed that they hadn’t sold any inlet hoses in a long time and suspected that mechanics were using the wrong hose. My A&P checked, and sure enough I had the wrong hoses. Someone in the past, either through ignorance or cheapness, had replaced the $350 inlet hoses with $20 scat tubing.

Part 135 Charter Operations are usually required to comply with service bulletins as well as ADs—depending on how their certificate is written. Air Carriers and Freight operations have rules that I am not familiar with.

I recently showed a student pilot how to pre-flight the Cherokee. We talked about all the things to look for—bug nests on the pitot-static ports, loose screws, brake fluid on the ground, bird’s nests in the tail cone and engine compartment, etc. Then we did the pre-takeoff checks using a pre-printed checklist, taxied around the apron for a while to get the feel for braking and turning, and shut down.

The next day he sent me an email asking whether we should make up a checklist with the particulars for this aircraft (i.e when powering down / rev’ing up to 1800-2000rpms and leaning out the mixture – to kill the engine).

My response follows:

tl;dr Yes. That is something everyone should do.

I bought the flip checklist and the laminated one in the back of the plane because I rented it to people who didn’t fly it often. That gave them something to use instead of just guessing. I never use them and made up my own.

One guy I fly with prints off a single page checklist for each flight and literally checks the boxes on it for each item.

Couple Bunch of reasons.

It used to be that you would not turn on your transponder until you took off. Now they want you to have it turned to alt while on the ground.

I have found bird’s nests in the tail and on the engine. I also found wasp’s nests in the engine and at the top of the vertical stabilizer. So my personal checklist on pre-flight is to look carefully for both of those things.

I like to have clean windows, especially when the sun is low on the horizon. So that’s part of my pre-flight.

When the engines were made, lead fouling wasn’t an issue so the checklist in the manual didn’t emphasize leaning. After three or four aborted lessons (and several hundred dollars in A&P fees) I added lean aggressively to the checklist for any engine originally designed to run on 80/87 fuel. I haven’t had fouling problems on higher octane engines, but I lean them aggressively, so I may have avoided issues.

I recently added a step on my checklist to check the GPS signal to my iPad before starting up.

I didn’t have it on the checklist, so I just added: run up to 1800-2000 RPM before shutdown. I also do a mag check then since the best time to check if you have fouled plugs is when you land so that you have time to fix it before the next flight.

It is easy to forget to adjust the trim. It is not a big deal on the Cherokee, but is more of an issue on the 210, so I put it in bold.

Sometimes at a fuel stop I have forgotten to check the fuel for water before getting back in the plane. So that’s in my checklist for inside.

It used to be that you would turn the landing light off in cruise—they only lasted about 40 hours. The LED ones last forever and draw no power, so they stay on all the time.

You often need to tap the fuel pressure gauge to get it going.

I have forgotten to raise the gear on the 210 and wondered why I was climbing so sluggishly so that step is in red on review items before calling the tower for takeoff clearance.

I hate GUMPS so I use C-FARTS before starting back to the airport. I use B-RAAGS entering the pattern and RAAGS at each reporting point.

B-RAAGS
Boost Pump On
Report – Usually you are asked to report entering the pattern, abeam the tower, or four mile final. At uncontrolled fields you report entering, at the numbers, turning base, turning final, short final, and off the active.

Airspeed – make it match the appropriate number for each leg.
Altitude – pattern altitude, dropping 500’ per minute while turning to final, following the VASI on final or visually at fields without lights.
Gear- get in the habit of saying it in case you fly a plane with retractable gear-or as we call the gear lever—the noise suppressor.

I also do the Radios, Mixture, Master, Mags mantra when shutting down.

By the way, I do my pre-flight flow differently than many people. You should do one that makes sense for you.

I start by removing the chains and cleaning the windshield. Then going inside the plane to open the pilot side window, dropping the flaps, and grabbing the fuel cup.

Then I check the fuel. Next I do the engine compartment.

Then I reach in the window to turn on the master to check the lights and stall warning light. From there I do the braille system. I start at the prop, top of the cowl, wing, pitot/static, gear, ailerons and flaps, fuselage—including antennas, tail, fuselage again, wing, cowl, and back to the prop.

I printed my checklist on 3×5 cards and put them in a photo album. I also have colored cards with emergency checklist items, one with weather minimums, V speeds, and other things that I want to know. Some of that info is handwritten and some is on the checklist document. Here are the current pdf and editable versions of the Cherokee checklist. I use Bean for simple editing, so you may have to adjust the format a bit if you use something else.

Paper sectional charts contain a listing of all of the Prohibited, Restricted, Alert, Warning, and Military Operations Areas (MOAs) at the top of the chart. The listing includes the location, altitude, time of use, and controlling agency. With the advent of electronic charts, it is sometimes difficult to find the top of the chart. Fortunately, the information is readily available by tapping the special use airspace (SUA) on the chart. In ForeFlight, you need to select the All tab and the info will appear at the top of the inset box. For everything except Prohibited areas, a frequency is given so that you can determine whether the area is hot. Prohibited areas are always hot, and as the name implies, flight by unauthorized aircraft into the area is prohibited. As discussed below, there aren’t that many prohibited areas and most are fairly small and do not extend very far above the surface. You are probably familiar with two prohibited areas, the White House grounds and Camp David. You may have noticed that Marine One has permission to fly in these areas. A good summary of the types of special use aipspace can be found in this FAA document.

Many Restricted Areas, are not active on a continuous basis and when they are not active, it is perfectly fine to fly though them. The chart has the hours when they are active, but it is a good idea to check with ATC before flying through them. Some, like R-2516 at Vandenberg AFB are charted as being active continuously, but are often not in use. Others, like R-2517 at Vandenberg AFB—directly over the launch site—are always hot.

You can fly through a MOA even if it is active, but since they contain training areas for high speed aircraft, active firing areas for the military, and other activities that may be hazardous to non-participants, flight through them without talking to ATC is not wise. However, ATC can be very accommodating in some cases. I have flown through the Lemoore MOAs many times and watched fighters in a dogfight appear to literally fall out of the sky—descending 10,000′ in no time at all.

If you are interested in seeing all of the areas in one document, the FAA publishes
Order JO 7400.8 Special Use Airspace. Each version has a letter suffix. The version as this is written is ‘JO 7400.8W’

Purpose of This Order. This Order, published yearly, provides a listing of all regulatory and non-regulatory Special Use Airspace areas, as well as issued but not yet implemented amendments to those areas established by the Federal Aviation Administration.

What got me started on writing this post is a very small Restricted Area in Nevada. Why would there be a restricted area in the middle of the desert. It turns out that it is a munitions storage area.

R-4811 Hawthorne, NV
Boundaries. A 1 1/2 NM radius circle centered at lat. 38°14’45″N., long. 118°38’18″W. Designated altitudes. Surface to 15,000 feet MSL.
Time of designation. 0800 to 1500 local time, Monday-Friday.
Controlling agency. FAA, Oakland ARTCC.
Using agency. Commander, Hawthorne Army Ammunition Plant, Hawthorne, NV.

AMENDMENTS 5/22/97 62 FR 14633 (Amended)

There are only eight prohibited areas in the entire country. Two are for the residences of former presidents, P-49 in Crawford Texas and P-67 Kennebunkport, Maine. P-56 has two discontinuous areas, the White House, and the Capitol Building with an area around the National Mall. P-40 in Thurmont, Maryland is listed as a Naval Support Facility but is really Camp David.

An interesting one is in Amarillo , the DOE Pantex Plant nuclear weapons assembly and disassembly facility.

P-47 Amarillo, TX
Boundaries. Beginning at lat. 35°21’09″N., long. 101°37’05″W.; to lat. 35°21’11″N., long. 101°32’29″W.; to lat. 35°18’09″N., long. 101°32’29″W.; to lat. 35°18’09″N., long.101°34’50″W.; to lat. 35°17’55″N., long. 101°35’10″W.; to lat. 35°17’55″N., long. 101°35’39″W.; to lat. 35°19’05″N., long. 101°35’42″W.; to lat. 35°19’05″N., long. 101°36’06″W.; to lat. 35°18’02″N., long. 101°36’29″W.; to lat. 35°18’02″N., long. 101°37’05″W.; to the point of beginning.
Designated altitudes. Surface to 4,800 feet MSL (1,200 feet AGL).
Time of designation. Continuous.
Using agency. Manager, Pantex Field Office, Department of Energy, Amarillo, TX. 

This looks complicated, but it is basically a square with a section cut out.

George Washington’s home P-73 Mount Vernon, Virginia is a prohibited area supposedly in an effort to prevent further damage caused by vibrations from overhead aircraft.

The Naval Submarine Base at Kings Bay, Georgia is P-50 and P-51 Bangor, Washington are the only two, so far, for military installations.

If you are looking for them in ForeFlight, you can’t find them by searching, but you can easily find them with the latitude and longitude coordinates. Just remember to convert the minutes to decimal form. So Amarillo is approximately 35.3N 101.6W.

I’ve been somewhat paranoid about stripping screws and over-torquing so I have always used a ratcheting screwdriver when doing an annual. This time though, I decided to try an electric screwdriver. I spent way too much time comparing models and settled on this one by Black and Decker. It has a variable-torque clutch so you don’t have to worry about dimpling the skin when you reinstall screws. It usually takes me 10 hours to take apart my 210 and this time it took 5 hours. The charge on the screwdriver lasted for all but the last six interior panels. I’m guessing in the neighborhood of 250 screws. And it is one of the least expensive options.

I’ve been using ForeFlight since 2011, but most of my flying is local or to places I have been before so I don’t make use of most of the features. I had some down time this week so I started reading the ForeFlight manual and found several things that I did not know, that will come in handy.

I knew that if you zoom in on the chart in an area covered by a Terminal Area Chart, that the TAC will appear. What I did not know is that you can see the whole chart—including things like the transitions thru Class B airspace, control tower frequencies—i.e everything that is on a paper chart. Though for TACs you only get the front of the chart. However you can download the information on the back to the Documents section.

To turn this feature on, go to Settings –> Map Touch Action –> Bring chart to front with legends. Tap once on the zoomed in Class B and scroll (to the left for LA). You get the legends and transitions. This can also be used where two sectionals overlap.

To turn the feature off, it appears you need to use the menu and set the option to ‘No Action’

The other thing that I found interesting, that you probably already know, is that in the NavLog, if you tap on the altitude on the LHS, it will pop up with a chart showing tailwinds/headwinds at different altitudes along your route. It shows all altitudes up to the maximum you can climb to (or the maximum you told it your plane could go to) before you need to start your descent.

Tylenol/Paracetamol (pain and fever reduction)
Ibuprofen (pain and fever reducer, anti-inflammatory)
Antihistamine (allergies, sleep aid)
Pseudoephedrine (nasal decongestant, helps with “ear pop” from planes)
Loperamide/Immodium (anti-diarrheal)
Multi-tool (Macgyver always had his)
Safety pins (quick fix for clothing, making an arm sling, emergency cloth)
Sun screen (SPF 15 minimum, small bottle or packets
Bandanna (sling for arm, dust mask)
Antiseptic towelettes (cleaning hands and wounds)
Electrolyte packets (for replacing loss due to vomiting or diarrhea)
Matches (light source, fires)
Tweezers (removing ticks, thorns, cactus, sea urchins, etc)
Mole skin (blisters on the feet, chafe prevention)
Band aids (minor cuts and scrapes)
Gauze roll (minor cuts and scrapes)
Antibiotic ointment (minor cuts and scrapes)
Burn ointment
Portable flashlight (looking into mouths, dark rooms)
Thermometer (is that really a fever, how high)
Latex/Nitrile gloves (protect yourself first)
4 x 4 gauze pads (minor cuts and scrapes)
Hand sanitizer (dirty hands mean infected cuts)

Ziplock bags
Water purification tablets
Duct tape (splints, gear repair)
Ace bandages (splints)
Krazy glue (wound closure)
Light sticks (seeing in the dark)

Complete kits

Some quotes from blogs about running lean of peak.

Leaning and MP

In terms of what power settings you would want for an IFR approach, I have found that every plane and pilot combination is slightly different from the next. But in my case, I have found that level flight with the gear and 10 degrees of flaps will take about 18 inches of MP. RPM won’t make much of a difference at these power settings. To get a 500 fpm descent and around 100 KIAS with the flaps and gear out will take around 14 to 15 inches of MP. But again every plane and pilot is a bit different.

I also run LOP- usually at 30MP and 2300RPM which yeilds about 160 KTAS on 13.1 GPH,

For the descent. I normally make the first pull back to 25″ then a few minutes later I pull back to 20″ if needed. I do reduce my prop back to 2400 or 2500 if I was running it above that in cruise.

One member cruises at 32 MP, 2400 RPM, 14.6 GPH
AT 12,000′ 28″/2400 using 112 PPH with 1620 TIT, 350-375 Cylinder temps and 175-180 True with cowl flaps closed @ -31C.

Take off full rich, fuel flow above redline. At about 1000ft agl roll rpm back to 2600, adjust fuel flow to about 85pph( roughly 15.5-16gph) and WOT. Climb about 500fpm depending on OAT. Very rarely have to use low boost fuel pump to prevent slow fluctuations in fuel flow-only on very hot days. If CHT’s creep past 380-usually on cyl #5- will lean slightly. Also,in cruise, we found that setting the MP to 34-35 inches makes the engine run cooler, and rpm’s are usually set at 2450-2500rpm.

I never liked messing around slowly leaning from the rich side to find peak. I do it from the lean side. I level off, pull the MP(throttle) to 27″, Prop 2300, big pull to FF 12.5(really feel this loss of power),we are now LOP(%power =13.7xFF for my TSIO520C), we don’t know exactly where but we are LOP, now push the throttle all the way to the fire wall(MP 32″,not going to adjust this any more), adjust the mixture(or now that we’re LOP, power) for the desired power setting you want and let things settle out(i.e. check TIT and CHT’s). Done(but still don’t know how far LOP I am). If I want to know how LOP I am, I’ll set the engine monitor to lean mode, open the cowl flaps, and richen the mixture until the first cyl peaks and note the EGT, then I go back to my cruise FF, note the EGT(of the same cyl that peaked), the difference it how far LOP I am.

Level off at cruise altitude set pwr at 30″ and 2300rpm. If your MP is out of the green just disregard, and let engine stabilize for a few mins with cowl flaps closed. Set your JPI to monitor TIT and lean the mixture SLOWLY untill you determine peak TIT, which should be near/around 1600+/-. Note FF at peak TIT just for reference. Now continue to slowly lean until the TIT is 50* cooler than peak. Also, doublecheck according to the JPI that every cyl egt has decreased, which indicates they are all LOP. Don’t adjust the mixture anymore. Now, here’s where the turbo shines. You’ll note that you have lost some MP, maybe 1-2″ and now just advance the throttle to recapture the lost MP…back to 30″. Now note FF, CHT’s, MP, RPM, and TIT. If your baffeling is tight you should see no CHT above 380, if fact it will probably be far less. Next time you fly use same power settings after level off and make the big pull to the FF you noted gives you 50 LOP should be somewhere around 13-14 GPH or so. JG

Mike Busch from Savvy Aviation has long been a proponent of aggressive leaning.

If, in the previous 90 days, a person has not completed three takeoffs and landings in the period from one hour after sunset to one hour before sunrise then they may not carry passengers. If you haven’t been up in the dark for a while, you may want to take a CFI with you. The question often arises, does the CFI have to be night current. The answer is no. And the reason is that when the CFI in instructing, they are not a passenger. Likewise, the pilot is not a passenger either. An opinion from the Chief Counsel’s Office makes that clear.

The trainer you learned to fly in probably had a carbureted engine. when starting the engine you were told to never push in the throttle unless you were cranking the engine. When doing the annual we learned first-hand why you were told that.

One of the things that we normally do is to lube the throttle, mixture, and carb heat cables. The cable is wrapped in a stainless braid, so we spray the braid and then work the cable a bit so that it gets the cable lubed up. Inside the plane, we just switched to using Tri-Flow and in the engine compartment we continue to use ACF-50.

The throttle cable had been sticking so we worked it in and out a bunch. I then went to lube the part in the engine compartment and noticed a ton of fuel on the floor. We turned the fuel off and lubed the cable in the engine. Even with the fuel off, there was still enough fuel in the system so that a large amount came out of the carb.

Fuel literally was pouring out of the hole in the bottom of the carburetor. If the engine is hot when you move the throttle, you can easily catch on fire.

If you do get a carburetor fire, pull the mixture, push the throttle all the way in, and continue cranking. That will deny the engine of fuel and suck the remaining fuel into the engine where it can safely burn up. It should go out in maybe 15 seconds. If not, get out.

While I was being vectored, it didn’t make a lot of sense to me, but as I look over my track and the airspace, I can see why ATC did what they did. Just like when you are heading for a mountain that is higher than your current altitude and ATC asks you to say your intentions, this is an example of ATC helping out, but not giving the you explicit information about what is happening.

On a recent flight to Marysville, KMYV, ATC kept me at 8,500′ over Sacramento and then turned me on a heading of 280° and allowed me to descend to 3,500′. At the time I thought it was for traffic, but after reviewing my track, I think the also wanted to keep me out of the Beale airspace. By starting my descent when I turned, they knew that I would be above 4,100′ while over Beale. I may have been in the TFR, it’s hard to tell from the track, but since I was talking to ATC and squawking a code, that was fine.

They terminated flight following when the track stops and I was at 3,500′. This gave me plenty of time to make wide right traffic to KMYV and get below the 1,600′ ceiling of Beale.

Compressions

Some mechanics like to do compression tests with a hot engine—that’s what the tester manufacturer recommends. My current IA does them cold. It can be done with one person, but I usually hold the gages write down the numbers. This time it took around 45 minutes. All of the compressions are OK but we have a major exhaust valve leak on one cylinder, a minor leak on another, and a bit of leaking on the rings on one cylinder.

The exhaust valve leak is not something that we can ignore. The way you find it is to listen to the air escaping from the cylinder through the exhaust. On the one cylinder, it was very obvious. On the other, you had to get close to the exhaust to hear it.

If you have an intake leak, you can listen to the intake manifold. Since we took off the intake from the turbo to get to the oil filter, it was easy to hear the hissing.

Next step is to look at the valve with a borescope.

By listening for escaping air at key engine locations, you can generally determine the source of low pressure readings:

• Air Escaping from Carburetor Intake: Indicates Leaking Intake Valve
• Air Escaping from Exhaust System: Indicates Leaking Exhaust Valve
• Air Escaping from Crankcase Breather: Indicates Defective Rings

In our case, the valves weren’t pitted, warped, or cracked. Since the compressions were fine, we need to watch those cylinder temperatures, but don’t have to replace them.

Hydrostatic Testing

Our oxygen cylinders are DOT 3AA steel cylinders. They need to be pressure tested every five years and have an unlimited life. Newer cylinders—DOT 3HT—are high-tensile steel. They are lighter but must be inspected every three years. They have a service life of 24 years. Even lighter are composite cylinders. They are made of aluminum inside with a Kevlar wrapper. They need to be tested every three years and last for 15 years. When you fill your tanks, it is important to use aviation oxygen. It contains very little moisture to condense and freeze at low temperatures.

You can read more about aviation oxygen systems at Aviation Pros and read the regulation governing their periodic qualification at 49 CFR part 180

I recently stumbled upon a conversation about how many times you should cycle the prop when doing your runup. One poster said that since the Pilots Operating Handbook says to do it once, that’s what they are going to do. And in general, following the POH is a good idea. Especially if you have a newer aircraft that actually has a serial specific Airplane Flight Manual and not the older owner’s manual. However, the Owners Handbook for my 1968 Cherokee, 1963 Cessna 182, and the Owner’s Manual for my 1973 Cessna 210 are each over 40 years old. A lot has changed in that time and some of the information in the manuals has been superseded by evidence accumulated over the years. And some of it is just not applicable as a practical matter. This post is a list of things that you might want to consider when reading your POH.

Updating your checklists

Several things have changed over the years that require updating your checklists. Among them are the introduction of GPS nav systems, the change to 100LL fuel, different procedures regarding anti-collision lights, the existence of TFRs, and changes to ATC instructions.

Check TFRs and NOTAMs

If you use ForeFlight or other flight planning and moving map tools, they will depict the TFRs for you. I have run into unexpected TFRs when the FAA was doing ILS tests, fires that sprung up, and airshows. Another reason to use flight following is that they will ask your intentions if your flight path looks like it will take you into a TFR.

It’s also easy to check NOTAMs and there is no reason not to do it before each flight. I always check them and it sometimes makes a big difference to my flight. On one occasion I was planning on following another pilot into Catalina to drop off some kids. It turns out that the airport was closed for resurfacing that day. On another occasion when I was going to pick up someone at Santa Monica, the president was in town and the airport was closed. And of course there is Senator Inhofe’s infamous landing at an airport that was closed and had construction equipment and men on the runway.

Lean Aggressively

In the previous post I discussed why engines that were originally designed for 80/87 will foul their plugs if not leaned aggressively on the ground and in the air. It’s a good idea for high compression engines as well. In my startup checklist, I set the RPM to 1000, check that I have oil pressure, note the fuel pressure and fuel quantities, and then immediatly lean aggressively.

Leave the Rotating Beacon On

AIM 4-3-23. Use of Aircraft Lights …aircraft equipped with an anti−collision light system are required to operate that light system during all types of operations (day and night).

Standard practice, not mentioned in the POH is to leave the rotating beacon on at all times. Leaving it on serves two purposes. First, you know it is on when you start the engine so others know that there is a moving prop. Second, if you forget to turn off the master, you’ll notice the beacon is flashing when you tie down. And if you don’t notice, chances are good that other people on the field will.

I rarely forget to turn the master off on shut-down, Radios, Mixture, Master, Mags was drilled into me when I was learning, but I have forgotten to turn off the master when entering flight plans. When I was first learning about the GNS430 I spent some time in the hangar programming it and working through the buttons. When I came in the next day, the gear doors were down. The battery had drained and when there is no power the system releases the door locking mechanism.

Set the Transponder

AIM 4−1−20. Transponder Operation 3. Civil and military transponders should be turned to the “on” or normal altitude reporting position prior to moving on the airport surface to ensure the aircraft is visible to ATC surveillance systems.

Not all airports are able to see you on the ground, but you need to turn it on anyway. This is a change from previous practice where you would set the transponder to “on” to warm it up and then to “alt” when you taxied from the runup area.

The FAA has just issued a Safety Alert For Operators, SAFO 15006, that “advises all operators and pilots of the need to ensure that transponders are in the altitude reporting mode whenever their aircraft is on an airport movement area at all airports.”

Don’t forget to squawk VFR after exiting the runway.

I use the FLAGS pneumonic,
Flaps (Cowl and Wing),
Lean Aggressively,
Air—it gets hot if the windows aren’t open,
Ground, give them a call for taxi instructions,
Squawk VFR.

Turn on your lights

AIM 4−3−23. Use of Aircraft Lights e. Prior to commencing taxi, it is recommended to turn on navigation, position, anti-collision, and logo lights (if equipped). To signal intent to other pilots, consider turning on the taxi light when the aircraft is moving or intending to move on the ground, and turning it off when stopped or yielding to other ground traffic.

I installed LED landing lights that won’t burn out after a short time in service. So I leave them on when in flight.

Don’t Set the Parking Brake

The POHs often recommend setting the parking brake when securing the aircraft and when doing the runup. This is not a good idea except momentarily when parking on an incline. John Deakin in #77 of his series Pelican’s Perch says this way better than I can, so I’ll just quote him about whether you should set the parking brake.

The new insurer for the 210 I fly is only going to charge $300 to add me to the policy—instead of $1,300 the old one wanted—so I’ve been reading the 210 manual for the first time in several years. I noticed that the Owner’s Manual doesn’t mention anything about leaning on the ground and gives advice about leaning in the air that has been superseded by newer best practices. I looked in the manuals for the Cherokee and Cessna 182 and they don’t mention anything about leaning on the ground either.

One of the first things I learned when flying the 182 is to lean aggressively on the ground. There were several flights when I first started flying it that were not able to be started because, on runup, we couldn’t get the mags to clear. After a couple of expensive trips to the A&P, I started leaning aggressively on the ground. At the time, I was too busy with the firehose of information to even think about why I needed to lean, just that it saved a lot of money if I did. This post is an explanation of why you need to lean on the ground—especially older small-bore engines.

Fuel is different from the 1960s and 1970s

The POH for the Cherokee and 182 specify 80/87 fuel. The 210 specifies 100/130 and that 100/130 low lead is also approved. So what do these numbers mean?

Shell explains it really well, (bolding is mine)…

EAA explains the change as well…

Purvis Brothers has similar information in metric units:

Tetraethyl lead content:
80/87 Max of .14g/l
100/130 has 1.12 g/l
100LL has .56 g/l

So why do plugs foul?

The engines on the Cherokee and the 182 were designed for fuel that has little or no lead. 100LL has at least four times as much lead as 80/87. At annual there is a substantial amount of lead that needs to be removed from them. On the other hand, the 210 was designed for fuel that had twice as much lead. I don’t recall every fouling the plugs and they don’t usually have much in the way of lead deposits at annual. I spoke to two other 210 drivers and they don’t recall fouling the plugs either—though they do lean aggressively on the ground.

As Steve Ells explains “The additive in Avgas that helps scavenge the lead in the fuel doesn’t do much until the combustion temperatures get up to around 1,400 degrees F.” At idle, your engine isn’t generating much heat. If you remember from studying for your PP test, fuel is a coolant. So the more fuel you give an idling engine the cooler it runs. Leaning the engine makes it run hotter—which is what you want on the ground.

Leaning

None of the owner’s manuals I’ve looked at mention leaning on the ground. Probably because, when the planes were manufactured, fouling plugs wasn’t an issue. Fuel prices were low, so saving a half-gallon or so wasn’t that big of a deal. The truth is that a full-rich mixture combined with the low power setting is the perfect scenario for lead fouling your spark plugs and valve stems.

So why don’t instructors teach new students to lean aggressively? Maybe so low time pilots won’t forget to go full-rich before take-off. But if you lean appropriately, this will never be a problem. Lean the plane at taxi RPM (usually 1000 RPM) so that it starts to stumble. Then enrichen just a bit. You’ll be able to taxi and do your runup at this mixture setting without worrying about taking off with less than full mixture. As soon as you advance the throtle a couple hundred RPM the engine will stumble. If you tried to advance to takeoff power, the engine would die from lack of fuel, before you even started your take-off run. To avoid the embarrassment of stalling when I leave the runup area, I put my hand on the mixture knob when I make my call to the tower or CTAF. And I don’t take it off until I’ve pushed the mixture to full rich for takeoff. (Or less that that for high-density altitude.)

John D. Collins explains his procedure for high density altitude:

How octane numbers are calculated.

From Shell:

I don’t know when 80/87 started to become less available, but Service Letter L185B from Lycoming dated January 19, 1988 states that “Whenever 80/87 is not available you should use the lowest lead 100 grade fuel available.” It goes on to say that, “higher lead fuels can result in increased engine deposits both in the combustion chamber and in the engine oil. It may require increased spark pull maintenance and more frequent oil changes.…Operation at full rich mixture requires more frequent maintenance periods; therefore it is important to use proper approved mixture leaning procedures.”

The Service Letter doesn’t mention leaning on the ground, but it does mention that “At engine speeds of 1000-1200 RPM on the ground, the spark plug temperatures are hot enough to activate the lead scavenging agents in the fuel which retards the formation of salt deposits on the spark plugs and exhaust valve stems.” Since the leaner the mixture, the hotter the cylinder temperatures, leaning aggressively would help with reducing lead deposits.

The letter provides a method for leaning in the air to reduce deposits.

Most of the ADs on an older airframe should have been complied with by the time you do your annual. From time to time additional ADs are added. For example, in 2013 all Piper aircraft were required to comply with AD 2013-02-13 that required disassembly and inspection of the stabilator control cable. And sometimes there are Service Bulletins by the manufacturer of the plane or parts that do not require compliance, but should be discussed with your IA.

For example, Piper issued a Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin SAIB: CE-14-23 to alert owners and mechanics that in a recent crash a “collapsed carburetor air inlet hose restricted airflow to the engine and caused the engine power loss.” The reason that the inlet hose collapsed is that it had been replaced with scat tubing and did not have the stronger hose that was called for in the parts manual. The hoses look about the same and unless you are specifically looking for it, it can be overlooked. In my case, it had been overlooked for at least 8 annuals. In this case, compliance with the SAIB isn’t “mandatory” like an AD, but a plane without the correct hoses is not airworthy, so the end result is the same.

Many Service Bulletins claim to be mandatory, but for Part 91 operators they are optional. For example, SERVICE BULLETIN No. TP-14 Rev. 3 claims that replacement of Parker Hannifin vacuum pumps is mandatory. It is not. Only the FAA can mandate replacement of parts and then only by issuing an AD.

Recurring ADs

Most older aircraft have ADs that are required to be performed at every annual or based on hours in service. Less common are ones based on calendar time. You can get tripped up if you don’t keep track of them.

The Exhaust Manifold Heat Exchanger AD 71-09-07 R1 requires that the shroud around the cabin heat exchanger be inspected for leaks at 50 hour intervals. It also requires that an industrial vacuum cleaner be attached to the tailpipe opening and a soap solution be used to check for leaks.

The Seat Track Wear and Pin Engagement AD 11-10-09 requires inspection of the seat rails at every annual to prevent slippage of the seats or the seat roller departing from the seat rail. Everyone who flies already knows to make sure the seat pins are locked into the rails and this makes sure that the rails are wide enough to hold the seats.

Cessna addressed this issue by offering free secondary seat stops, which we had installed. We still need to have the rails and rollers inspected every 100 hours.

Since we’ve owned the 210 there has only been one additional AD. Wing Lower Main Spar Caps AD 12-10-04. The wording is a bit confusing, but we don’t need to comply with it until we reach 5,000 hours on the airframe.

Every time the oil is changed, we need to comply with the Oil Filter Adapter Assembly Nut AD 96-12-22. This action requires inspecting the oil filter and adapter assembly for oil leakage and proper installation of the adapter retaining nut and fretting of associated threads.

There is one AD that I comply with on just about every flight and log every so often. I generally do a mag check before shutting down since I’d rather know that I have a foul plug when I just got back rather than when I want to go somewhere. The Bendix Switches AD 76-02-07 adds one more step. It requires that with the engine at normal idle, rotate the switch key or lever through the “OFF” detent to the extreme limit of its travel in the “OFF” direction. If the engine stops firing, this indicates an airworthy switch.

The reason I, as the pilot, can sign off on this AD is because it specifically state as much in the AD itself, “The checks required by this AD may be performed by the pilot.”
Inspection of the oil filter assembly is also specifically allowed to be done and logged by the pilot.

You can search for current ADs at the FAA website. You may have noticed a pattern to the labelling. They start with the year and month. The next two digits aren’t the date but are sequence numbers. If they have been revised the revision number of the current AD follows.

Keeping track of which ADs apply to your aircraft can be difficult if you do it manually. The IAs that I use all subscribe to Tdata. You enter the serial numbers for the aircraft and all of the parts, engine, magnetos, radios, etc. and it tells you which ADs are applicable. The first time you use the system, you need to go through the books to see which ADs have been complied with, which ones don’t apply, and which ones are recurring. After that, it’s pretty easy to keep up.

I think that every aircraft owner should do at least one owner-assisted annual and preferably assist in the pre-buy inspection. One big reason is that if, for example, you get a bill for four hours to remove the magnetos, you will understand why it took so long. The other reason is that, if you have a good IA and access to the parts manual, you can improve your pre-flight and hopefully avoid flying a plane that has safety issues.

Before You Start

On most airplanes, you need to change the air filter and do an oil change at the annual. So look in the books to find out the part numbers of the filters. You might also need brake pads, so take a look and see. If you can’t tell, order them anyway—they are relatively cheap and they don’t go bad sitting on the shelf. I like to keep a bunch of spark plug gaskets around. Again, they are cheap so get a bunch—I need 12 at each annual. I keep a half-dozen around in case I need to clean a fouled plug between annuals. If you are doing the annual in your hangar, get some different sizes of safety wire. It will save time running back to your IA’s hangar.

The 210 was painted a few years ago and had all new stainless screws installed. If you have an older plane, or one that is kept outside, you might want to invest in a stainless screw kit. They aren’t expensive and that way you can replace screws that have the heads torn up.

Next up is checking for recurring items. ELT batteries need to be replaced every two years and it is not something you can do yourself—you need an A&P to inspect it. I’m lucky with the ELT in the Cessna in that it uses D-cell batteries you can buy just about anywhere. The Cherokee uses a special battery that you can only get from aircraft supply stores.

I’m close enough to Aircraft Spruce that I get my order the next day, so I usually wait until we start the annual before I order—just in case something comes up that I forgot. e.g. I might be running low on ACF-50 for lubing the hinges, so I need to order a can. Or you might need a few cans of Plexus.

Check the AD list from the last annual for recurring ADs. Most, like the Bendix mag check, just require an inspection or test. If your mags are near 500 hours, then you’ll want to remove them after you do the initial runup and spark plug compression checks. If you have oxygen tanks, they need a hydro test every five years.

As I’ll explain later, you need at least four bead boxes. I get mine at Michael’s with their 50% off coupons. You’ll also need another half dozen or so plastic containers. I have a bunch of salsa containers but yogurt containers with lids will do as well. They only need to be big enough to hold a handful of screws.

You’ll also need a workbench and storage spot. I like to use a set of plastic shelves. I set it up with three shelves. The top is just the right height for taking apart ELTs, cleaning spark plugs, or reviewing the logs.

In a previous post Doing the annual in your own hangar I listed the tools and equipment that you should have handy.

Wash the Plane Before Starting

The 210 only has one inspection plate on the belly, so it doesn’t matter much if the plane is greasy. If you are working on low wing planes, there are lots of things on the belly and wing root that need to be removed. Grab a tub of Gojo (the kind with the blue label without pumice) and clean the belly before you start. You’ll be glad you did. I like to wash the rest of the plane as well. It’s much nicer to work on a clean plane than one that is covered in dust, bugs, and bird droppings.

But before you start, and I hope you are doing this on your pre-flight anyway, look over all of the surfaces for hot rivets, fuel stains, hydraulic fluid leaks, and exhaust trails where they shouldn’t be. If you find anything suspicious, you might want to get and A&P to look at it before you clean it up.

Tools For Taking Things Apart

I use a ratcheting screwdriver but an electric screwdriver would probably work as well. I have one that I use on the engine and greasy parts outside and another that I use for the interior and clean exterior parts. You’ll also need a regular screwdriver for screws that are tighter than normal. If you keep your plane outside, some Kroil wouldn’t hurt for screws that are stuck. You’ll also need a ladder that is tall enough for you to reach the top of the tail. I like to wear an apron to carry pens and hold my tools when I need two hands. When you get to the engine, you’ll want some vinyl or nitrile gloves. There are a couple of bolts in the interior, so you’ll need your ratchet set and wrenches for them.

In the engine compartment, you’ll need a pair of cutters to cut the safety wire on the oil filter and the oil drain. I bought a set of stubby wrenches a while ago for getting into tight places and made sure that they went up to 1″. The oil drain uses a 7/8″ so they came in handy. I can usually take off the oil filter by hand but this time I needed my 1″ wrench to loosen it.

Draining the Oil

I like to fly the plane for a while to warm up the oil and get all the junk circulating. I don’t know if it makes a whole lot of difference. A lot of mechanics like to to the compression checks on a warm engine as well. The oil drain on the 210 is in the nose gear well. You need to open the gear doors to get to it. Pull the circuit breaker for the gear. Then use the hand pump to open the doors. It’s too tight in there for a quick drain, so we’ve worked out a process for getting the oil out of the plane and into the recycling container. We basically make a funnel out of a 4′ piece of cardboard. Snip the safety wire, use a 7/8″ wrench to loosen the nut, and then slowly untwist it until the oil starts to come out. After most of the oil has drained out, I remove the oil filter. The trick to removing the filter is to loosen it (by hand or with a 1″ wrench if it’s tight—be careful not to use any downward force) and then wrap the filter, and a couple of inches onto the filter mount, in plastic bags. If you are careful, you can remove it without getting oil on the engine. I put a couple of paper towels under the filter to catch any drips.

I usually let the oil drain for a couple of days while I work on other things. One thing I don’t do is put the drain plug back in. It needs to be safety wired and I don’t want to forget to do it. It’s really hard to reach in there and my wiring skills aren’t that great, so I usually let the IA wire it back up.

Taking Things Apart

This is incredibly time consuming. From start to finish it took 8 hours. And I’ve done this dozens of times before.

One of the big-ticket time-consuming surprises on Cessnas is related to the seat rail AD. I like to remove the interior and have the IA inspect the seat rails before he does anything else. If there is a problem, you know right at the beginning. If you haven’t ordered a spare set of brake linings, get the IA to look at the pads before you order parts. They have enough experience to tell if they need replaced just by looking at them.

I haven’t counted the inspection plates on the exterior of the 210, but there are around 50 of them. Which means that there are about 200 screws. Some are machine screws and some are sheet metal screws. And there are about four sizes. I’ve worked on planes where the IA dumped all of the screws from one wing into one container. Trying to find the screws to put back in the right place is incredibly time consuming. What I do is start at the wing root. I take off the faring over the door and put all the screws into the first spot in the bead box. The first inspection plate will catch on the door if you leave it attached, so I remove it. Then I work my toward the wingtip. I leave one screw in each plate. For plates near the ailerons or flaps, I make sure that they won’t catch when the surfaces are moved. Make sure you don’t miss the inspection plate on the aileron. On my 210 there are three inspection plates on the front of the wing that use tiny screws. Since there are more plates than spots in my bead box, I put all of them in the same slot. By the time I get to the wingtips, I’ve run out of spots, so I use a salsa container for the screws. I leave two screws on the top of the wingtip so that it doesn’t fall off when the plane bounces around. Repeat the process for the other wing.

On the tail, I use one salsa container for the strobe, one for the inspection plate under the rudder trim, one for the tail cone, and one for each side of the fairings. I also use one for the inspection plate on the fuselage near the tail. As you take them apart, notice that the screws on the end of the fairings are machine screws.

I use two bead boxes for the interior—one for the inspection plates on the floor and one for everything else. The screws in the cargo section are all the same, so I just dump them all in to a salsa container.

There are a few tricks that you should know when working on the interior. The first thing I do on the inside is remove all of the headsets, water bottles, and miscellaneous junk. Next, look for the pins on the seat rails that keep the seat from moving too far back. Remove the ones in the front and the ones in the back. Push the rear seats all the way back so that you have room to remove the front seats. On my year, the front seats won’t come out unless you remove a section of the seat rail. It is different for other years years. Once the seat rails are removed, push the seat all the way back until both of the back rollers are off the rail, then tilt the seat forward and remove the front rollers. This is where you need the extra two inches you get from pushing the middle seats all the way back. The middle seats are fairly easy to remove, with out any tricks.

Next comes the rear bench seat. There are two bolts that hold the front to the floor. There are also two pins that keep the back from sliding all the way out of the rail when it is folded down. And here’s the non-obvious part. There are two bolts on each side that you remove from inside the rear wheel well. They are the same size as the ones in the interior and really easy to spot. Surprisingly enough there is no special trick to putting them back in. It helps to have a pick to line up the holes. Just leave them a bit loose so you have some play for the ones inside, then tighten once the inside bolts are started.

You probably need to remove the seat belts for the front and middle rows in order to get the carpet out. If you don’t then use some rubber bands to bunch them up so the are out of the way and stay clean. You might even want to put them in plastic bags. Personally, I like to remove them even if it isn’t necessary.

I usually take the center console off next. It’s pretty obvious how to take it apart. The only trick is to remove the knob on the end of the handle and open the flaps half way so that the console. Pay attention to where the tiny screws on the side go.

Once the carpet is out, you may want to label each of the inspection plates. We started at the front and labelled pilot and co-pilot starting at one. There are two inspection plates in the rear that are partially under the side panel. We removed them this year, just to see what is there, but they don’t need to be removed every year. I needed to use a finger bit screwdriver to remove them.

There are three large inspection plates in the middle that overlap. We labelled them so we know which ones are on top. Unlike most inspection plates, the screws for these are not all the same. These plates are over the hydraulic lines, so you want to be sure that you don’t put long screws in where short ones are supposed to go. Also, some of them are structural, so you need to make sure that they go back where they came from. The structural ones are cadmium plated so they are gold colored. Since we’ll never remember where things go, we wrote it on the inspection plates. If in doubt, refer to the parts catalog.

Tools For Putting Things Back Together

In addition to your screwdriver, you’ll need a couple of straight picks, and a good flashlight.

Putting It Back Together

I like to have my IA inspect the interior and exterior so I can put it back together before we start on the engine and gear swing, etc. That way there aren’t open inspection plates to bump and wingtips and tail parts to fall off. And the less time the seats spend outside the plane, the better. I put everything but the seats and engine stuff back together in one long eight hour day. We left the front seats out so we can get to the oxygen tanks. That included a half hour spraying ACF-50 on the pulley bolts—being careful not to get any on the inside of the pulley itself. And spraying all of the hinges and Heim bearings on the wings. I was really tired when I got to the wings, so I just put the screws in and didn’t tighten them. I went back the next day and spent a half-hour methodically tightening all of the screws.

You probably won’t remember exactly where in the bead box each set of screws is, but its not to hard to get them back in the right place. Most of the ones next to each other have different numbers of screws, so you can tell by counting if you have the right plate. Just be careful to use the right kind of screw. When in doubt, look at the remaining screw to see whether it is a machine screw or a sheet metal screw. I always start the screws by hand so that I don’t strip out the hole. If you meet resistance, then either you aren’t lined up straight or you have the wrong kind of screw. All of the inspection plates on my 210 have the same kind of screws in each hole. On older planes, you will sometimes find that one or two screws is one size larger than the rest. Someone in the past has replaced a screw with a larger one because the hole has become enlarged. That’s one of the benefits of using a different spot in the bead box for each inspection port. If there is a larger screw, you know where it goes.

You need to be careful with the wing root fairing and the empennage fairings. On the wing root, the front two screws are sheet metal screws and the rest are machine screws. On tail, the screws on the end are machine screws and the rest are sheet metal. If you look carefully, you can se the threads where the machine screws go. Again, be careful not to force them.

The picks can come in handy for lining up the holes on the tail cone. You can also save yourself some frustration by making sure that all of the sheet metal nuts are lined up with the holes before you start putting the screws back in. It’s really frustrating to find out that you need to remove a dozen screws because one nut has shifted and the screw won’t catch.

Once everything is back together, check all the lights to make sure you haven’t accidentally cut any wires or pulled apart connectors.

A Note on Removing Hard to Turn Screws

Most of the time, the screws are easy to remove with your ratcheting screwdriver. Sometimes, they don’t turn. In that case you need a straight screwdriver with a good tip that is the right size. It’s somewhat counter intuitive, but push really hard on the screwdriver and slowly turn the screw. Sometimes I need to put my full weight on the screw. If it starts to jump out of the screw, stop. Spray a bit of Kriol or ACF-50 on it and let it sit. You really don’t want to strip the head. If that doesn’t work, your A&P can probably coax it out. When I first started taking planes apart, I had a bunch that I couldn’t remove. I’ve only had one screw on a spinner that stymied me in the last half-dozen years. I think that whoever put it in mis-threaded it. We soaked it overnight, and even then I couldn’t get it out but my IA could.

Changing the ELT Batteries

The good news on my ELT battery is that it only cost $15 for new batteries and the old ones are perfectly good for toys and flashlights. The bad news is that the battery compartment is screwed into the transmitter with really tiny hex bolts. It took over a half hour to remove the batteries and put in the new ones.

Total Time So Far

I spent about an hour reviewing the log books and ordering parts. Eight hours taking it apart, 7 1/2 hours putting it back together. So I’m up to 16 1/2 hours and still need to do the gear swing, wheel bearing inspection, compression check, pressure test on the exhaust system, and clean the plugs.

You know what your most important piece of safety equipment is?

Your credit card! With that, you can rent a car, get a hotel room, buy an airline ticket, or do whatever you need to do so you are not flying in conditions you shouldn’t be in.

Interesting article about drone research being done at WSU.

The article mentions a couple of things drones can do for farmers much more cheaply than existing methods.
Blow the rain off of cherries – instead of using helicopters. (Who knew there even was such a thing as cherry blower?)
Chase birds.
Monitor disease over acres and acres of wheat or corn.
Spray chemicals in precise locations—not over the whole field.

I can think of a couple of things not mentioned in the article as well. e.g. picking fruit from far flung places in an orchard or vineyard to test for ripeness. Zapping bugs with frickin’ laser beams attached to the drones. That would probably be a big hit with the organic crowd. I’m sure the farmers here can think of plenty of other uses.

Seems like this is one of the first areas that the FAA should approve drone usage. They’ll be flying low—dozens of feet off the ground so there is no conflict with existing traffic. They are in unpopulated areas so the risk to people on the ground is low. There shouldn’t be any noise complaints since they are quieter than existing practices. And best of all, there are no vested interests to lobby against their use.

Compared to Amazons package delivery proposal this seems like something that might actually happen in the next couple of years.

I just completed two annuals in my own hangar and thought I’d write up the tools and materials that I needed. In addition to my 80% bag, which I’ve been using for around 20 annuals on my planes and on others, I found that there are some things that you need to have in your hangar if you want to do an annual without running back and forth to your A&Ps hangar.

Miscellaneous
If you take apart the plane in a methodical fashion, it is way easier to put it back together. To me nothing is worse than trying to put an interior back together and having all the screws in one container. I use bead boxes—like the kind you get at craft stores. For a simple plane like the Cherokee, I use one for each wing and one for the interior. The 210 takes two in the interior. And a couple of salsa containers for the tail and brakes. I like to use a yogurt cup to hold the screws from each inspection plate, then dump them into a section of the box. If you start at one end of the wing and put each set of screws in its own container, it’s way easier to put it back together. Likewise in the interior—if you take things out in a rational order, it is much easier to put them back. It helps to keep the seat belts clean if you have some rubber bands to keep them out of the way.

You’ll need a notepad or at least some scrap paper for writing part numbers down—though I suppose you could use your phone for that. A camera comes in handy if you need to take things apart and it’s not obvious how they go back together.

On the last annual I used 3 rolls of Brawny paper towels. You can use shop towels, but I don’t think the added expense is worth it. I also used about 10 nitrile gloves.

I also keep a pair of regular gloves around for doing things like moving the jacks.

Shop lights. I don’t have any, but if you want to work a night or without the hangar door open, they would be very useful. Likewise, a good LED bar light would come in handy.

Rubber mats, secretarie’s chair, creeper. The rubber mats com in handy when working inside the plane, the creeper for underneath, and the secretaries’s chair for working on the engine. None of them are required—just nice to have. What is required is a flat surface to work on and a set of shelves to store stuff. I have a 6′ shelving set that I set up in two parts. One for storing parts and tools that I don’t use very often and one for a work surface.

You’ll generate a lot of oily rags and have lots of small trash when working on your plane. I like to have a couple of coffee cans lying around to toss bad screws and paper towels in. At the end of the day I take them home, dry out the rags that were used with solvents, and toss the rest in the trash. It helps to have a couple of plastic grocery bags around for the trash.

Jacks and tail-stand weights.
If you have a low-wing plane, it’s nice to jack it up when you are working under it. But in any case, you’ll need to jack it up to take the wheels off when you check and grease the wheel bearings. You can probably borrow your A&P’s but if you do much maintenance on you own plane, you’ll want your own.

It is extremely important to have enough weight on the tail stand. Even the little Cherokee needs at lest 300 lbs.

Lubrication
During the annual you need to make sure that all of the pulleys for the rudder and ailerons are lubricated. You also need to have all of the hinges and vents on the outside of the plane lubricated.

For external parts I like to use ACF-50. It is a lubricant and corrosion inhibitor. I have also used it internally, but my newest A&P prefers Tri-Flow. It is a teflon-based lubricant that isn’t as messy as ACF-50. We used it on the yoke and it slides without catching or making any noise. I’d recommend it anywhere that you don’t need the anti-corrosion properties of ACF-50. Lots of people use LPS-3 as well. Don’t use LPS-1. It is basically a cleaner with no lubrication properties. It is used for things like limit switches.

My planes use Aeroshell #5 for wheel bearings and Zerks but you should check with your A&P to see what you use. A bearing grease packer is required for packing the wheel bearings and a small grease gun for filling all of the bearings on the undercarriage that have a Zerk fitting.

Penetrants
For over the counter products, nothing beats Kano Kroil. It’s fairly expensive, but a can will last forever. The only place in town I found it was NAPA and it was $16. However, testing shows that a 50/50 mix of Automatic Transmission Fluid and Acetone works better. In tests, Kroil required 106 lbs of force to remove rusted bolts and the home-brew mixture required half that.

Adhesives
I haven’t had much call to glue anything down, but when I do, I use E6000. I recently glued two rubber grommets together where tubing went through a baffle and I glued some oil-soaked cloth to the airframe around the cowl. I also used it to glue some carpeting down. So far it works fine. I use popsicle sticks to apply it, but a spatula would work too.

Oil Change
I have a quick-drain on my Cherokee and to drain it into the garbage-company provided drain pan I need 4 feet of plastic tubing. The drain on the C210 is under the nosewheel so I use a piece of cardboard box to act as a funnel into the drain pan. When taking the oil filter off, it helps to wrap it in a large zip-lock bag. I can usually prevent any oil from getting on the engine if I am really careful removing the filter. Oil-filter cutters are really expensive, so you might want to use your A&P’s. But if you change your own oil, they’re a good investment.

Spark Plugs
You need to replace the spark-plug gaskets every time you check your plugs. The gaskets are maleable when new but harden when the engine has run. If you are really cheap, you can anneal them and reuse them as shown in this video—but they’re .37 each so why bother? You’ll also need a drop of anti-seize for each plug when replacing them. The Champion brand has been hard to find, but your A&P should have some.

You’ll need two wrenches to remove the spark-plug wires. One to hold the wire and one to turn the fitting. You’ll also need a socket for the spark plugs. When installing the plugs, it is important to have a calibrated torque wrench. If you don’t do a lot of maintenance on your own, this might be something that your A&P should provide.

To clean the lead out of your plugs, you’ll need a good pick and some really small picks. I bought a small screwdriver set from the dollar store that works well. Like the kind used for tightening eyeglasses. The are good for getting the difficult to reach pieces of lead out of the plugs. This can be really time consuming—especially for the bottom plugs. This might be one of the things that you take to your A&Ps hangar for cleaning and testing in his machine. The testing machines are really expensive, so you probably won’t want one of your own.

Spark-plug trays are surprisingly expensive ~$60 for a few pieces of metal. If you plan on moving the plugs, a couple of holes drilled in a 4×4 will work just as well. Otherwise, just lay them out on some paper towels and mark the towels.

Compression Testing
This is one piece of equipment that you probably don’t need to buy. You might want to buy a portable compressor if you don’t want to move the plane to your A&P’s hangar.

Cleaning and Corrosion Fixing
One of the best things about doing the annual in your own hangar is that you can take as much time as you want to clean the plane and fix corrosion.

Before starting the annual, I use a half-tub of non-abrasive GOJO to clean the belly and then give the plane a good wash. It’s amazing how much easier it is to work on a clean plane. The rest of the GOJO comes in handy while working on the engine and brakes.

When the wing-tips and tail pieces are off, I like to use ACF-50 to get all the dirt and dust off. When the wing tips are removed, there is a lot of bare metal where you can see dirt collecting. A couple of toothbrushes and some ACF-50 gets rid of the dust in the creases and adds corrosion protection while you are doing it. I like to use Colgate brushes from the dollar store, but any but the cheapest brushes work.

I often use Q-tips and white mineral spirits or Stoddard solvent for cleaning oil and grease from places that they don’t belong.

Miscellaneous Tools
A voltage tester can come in handy. Either a complete Fluke meter or just a simple pen type. Make sure it handles the voltage on your plane. This annual we used it to check continuity on the power receptacle before and after replacing it. On the 210 annual we used it for checking continuity on the landing light—turned out it was just a bit of corrosion on the wire ends. Lots of zip ties for keeping wires from rubbing in the engine compartment. Any time you remove something, it’s more than likely that you’ll cut some zip ties.

Copper anti-seize for the pins on the brake cylinders. Lots of Scotch-brite for cleaning electrical contacts and paint prep. I use a roll of green painters tape to mark things that I want the IA to look at. I also use it to mark places that I need to pay attention when putting the plane back together. If you need to fix any corrosion, you’ll need masking paper.

A wire stripper is handy if you need to replace any electrical stuff. I have a first aid kit in the hangar and I use at least a few band-aids on each annual.

If you have a retractable, you might want to invest in an or borrow an external power supply. If you are just doing a couple of gear swings, the battery can handle it fine, but if you are doing some adjustments, you might wear down the battery.

Work Area
I use plastic shelves to store tools and supplies and for a work area. They are light weight and easy to move around. You can also take them apart for storage.

I found a link to this video and ended up spending Sunday evening watching WWII videos.

It’s amazing how much thought went into packing up the airplanes. I thought it was interesting that the only required equipment was “standard mechanics tools… and 50 men”.

The procedures described in these videos are slightly more complicated than the ones we use on single-engine planes—after all they do have four engines—but they are remarkably relevant to today’s private pilots.

How to Fly the Boeing B-29 Superfortress -1944

Boeing B-29 Superfortress Flight Engineer -1944

How to Fly the North American B-25 ‘Mitchell’ Medium Bomber (1944)

How to Fly the Boeing B-17 ‘Flying Fortress’ – Flight Procedures

How to Fly the Boeing B-17: Ground Operations – 1944

How to Fly the Boeing B-17 ‘Flying Fortress’

Maneuvering speed, Va, is defined (either normal or utility) as the maximum speed the airplane can fly and be able to stall before any structural damage occurs on the wings from excessive loads. It almost seems like a speed set for the airplane, like an amp limit for a breaker in an electrical circuit, before you blow a wire (or a wing in this case).

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
The maximum speed at which an airplane may be stalled safely is now determined for all new designs. This speed is called the “design maneuvering speed” (VA), which is the speed below which you can move a single flight control, one time, to its full deflection, for one axis of airplane rotation only (pitch, roll or yaw), in smooth air, without risk of damage to the airplane.

VA must be entered in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual/ Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) of all recently designed airplanes. For older general aviation airplanes, this speed is approximately 1.7 times the normal stalling speed. Thus, an older airplane that normally stalls at 60 knots must never be stalled at above 102 knots (60 knots × 1.7 = 102 knots). An airplane with a normal stalling speed of 60 knots stalled at 102 knots undergoes a load factor equal to the square of the increase in speed, or 2.89 Gs (1.7 × 1.7 = 2.89 Gs). (The above figures are approximations to be considered as a guide, and are not the exact answers to any set of problems. The design maneuvering speed should be determined from the particular airplane’s operating limitations provided by the manufacturer.)

Operating at or below design maneuvering speed does not provide structural protection against multiple full control inputs in one axis or full control inputs in more than one axis at the same time.

All standard certificated aircraft are designed to withstand loads imposed by gusts of considerable intensity. Gust load factors increase with increasing airspeed, and the strength used for design purposes usually corresponds to the highest level flight speed. In extremely rough air, as in thunderstorms or frontal conditions, it is wise to reduce the speed to the design maneuvering speed. Regardless of the speed held, there may be gusts that can produce loads that exceed the load limits.

Each specific aircraft is designed with a specific G loading that can be imposed on the aircraft without causing structural damage. There are two types of load factors factored into aircraft design: limit load and ultimate load. The limit load is a force applied to an aircraft that causes a bending of the aircraft structure that does not return to the original shape. The ultimate load is the load factor applied to the aircraft beyond the limit load and at which point the aircraft material experiences structural failure (breakage). Load factors lower than the limit load can be sustained without compromising the integrity of the aircraft structure.

Speeds up to, but not exceeding, the maneuvering speed allow an aircraft to stall prior to experiencing an increase in load factor that would exceed the limit load of the aircraft.

TL;DR
As Sparky Imeson said, When operating at a speed greater than maneuvering speed vertical gusts can cause a sudden increase in the angle of attack. This results in large wing loads that are resisted by the inertia of the airplane. The structure is not designed to withstand this load and may become permanently deformed or worse, it may fail. When operating at or less than maneuver speed, the airplane will stall before breaking. Gusts are momentary features, so the stall is a brief stall and normally does not require pilot-initiated stall recovery.

Rule of Thumb
One of my instructors pointed out to me that on every airplane that he has flown, the maneuvering speed was around the 6:00 position on the Airspeed Indicator. While that doesn’t substitute for knowing the speed, it’s better than flying through turbulence at a speed much greater than the wings can support.

Cessna 152 Airspeed Indicator

Cessna 182 Airspeed Indicator

Cessna T210 Airspeed Indicator

Cessna 152’s maneuvering speed is a range of 93 to 104 knots, the Cessna 182 is 128 MPH, and the Cessna 210 is 135 MPH at max gross.

Lessons Learned
Following the crash of American Airlines Flight 587 the FAA issued Advisory Circular AC 25.1581-1. In it they advise that:

1 Full application of pitch, roll, and/or yaw controls should be confined to speeds below the maneuvering speed; and
2 Rapid and large alternating control inputs, especially in combination with large changes in pitch, roll, or yaw, and full control inputs in more than one axis at the same time should be avoided as they may result in structural failures at any speed, including below the maneuvering speed.

AC 61-67C Stall and Spin Awareness
f. VA. VA is the design maneuvering speed. Do not use full or abrupt control movements at or above this speed. It is possible to exceed the airplane structural limits at or above VA.

g. Load Factor. Load factor is the ratio of the lifting force produced by the wings to the actual weight of the airplane and its contents. Load factors are usually expressed in terms of “G.” The aircraft’s stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor. For example, an airplane that has a normal unaccelerated stall speed of 45 knots can be stalled at 90 knots when subjected to a load factor of 4 G’s. The possibility of inadvertently stalling the airplane by increasing the load factor (i.e., by putting the airplane in a steep turn or spiral) is much greater than in normal cruise flight. A stall entered from straight and level flight or from an unaccelerated straight climb will not produce additional load factors. In a constant rate turn, increased load factors will cause an airplane’s stall speed to increase as the angle of bank increases. Excessively steep banks should be avoided because the airplane will stall at a much higher speed. If the aircraft exceeds maneuvering speed, structural damage to the aircraft may result before it stalls. If the nose falls during a steep turn, the pilot might attempt to raise it to the level flight attitude without shallowing the bank. This situation tightens the turn and can lead to a diving spiral. A feeling of weightlessness will result if a stall recovery is performed by abruptly pushing the elevator control forward, which will reduce the up load on the wings. Recoveries from stalls and spins involve a tradeoff between loss of altitude (and an increase in airspeed) and an increase in load factor in the pullup. However, recovery from the dive following spin recovery generally causes higher airspeeds and consequently higher load factors than stall recoveries due to the much lower position of the nose. Significant load factor increases are sometimes induced during pullup after recovery from a stall or spin. It should be noted that structural damage can result from the high load factors that could be imposed on the aircraft by intentional stalls practiced above the airplane’s design maneuvering speed.

l. Turbulence. Turbulence can cause an aircraft to stall at a significantly higher airspeed than in stable conditions. A vertical gust or windshear can cause a sudden change in the relative wind, and result in an abrupt increase in AOA. Although a gust may not be maintained long enough for a stall to develop, the aircraft may stall while the pilot is attempting to control the flightpath, particularly during an approach in gusty conditions. When flying in moderate to severe turbulence or strong crosswinds, a higher than normal approach speed should be maintained. In cruise flight in moderate or severe turbulence, an airspeed well above the indicated stall speed and below maneuvering speed should be used. It should be noted that maneuvering speed is lower at a lower weight.

Calculating Maneuvering Speed with Different Weights
The formula used to calculate a safe speed for a lower weight is Va * Sqrt(W1/W2), where Va maneuvering speed (at maximum weight), W2 = actual airplane weight, W1 = maximum weight.

From the forumula we see that the maximum Va is at maximum weight.

This is the javascript code I use in calculating Va for various weights:

    var Calculated_Va = Va_at_maxweight * Math.sqrt(Total_Weight/Gross_Weight_max);
    var Calculated_Va_MPH = Calculated_Va * 1.15;

Technical Details
This article Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers give some of the technical details behind the calculation of maneuvering speed.

I’ve changed the oil a bunch of times with my A&P but never on my own. After reading a long thread on Beechtalk about changing your own oil, I decided to give it a try on my Cherokee so I did some research first.

There are differing opinions on using DC-4 to lube the gasket. Some say it’s not necessary, others insist that you must use it. The other issue is torque. The manual calls out a specific torque for the filter. However, in most engines it is really difficult to get a torque wrench positioned on the nut at the end of the filter. The Beechtalk thread says to “Lube the gasket with at least motor oil, turn the filter on by hand until the gasket makes contact with the filter adapter, mark the filter at the 3’oclock position and then turn with the nut so the mark is at 12 o’clock (3/4 turn).”

I found a could of websites with more details. This site is a good place to start. This one has a little more info.

However, you can get an oil filter wrench for $60 at Aircraft Spruce that is pre-set to 17 foot-pounds that takes all of the guesstimating out of the installation.

And because you must properly safety wire the filter, I reviewed the proper way to wire at this site.

I ordered a pair of safety wire pliers, two loops of safety wire, and a filter. Not sure if I need .032 or .041 so I ordered both—they’re only $1.25 for 25 feet so I figure I can get both and then see which size is being used. The articles indicate that the largest size that fits throughout the holes should be used. It was less than $50 total. For some reason, I couldn’t find DC-4 on the site when I made my order, but I found it later. I’ll see if I can pick it up locally. I picked up a case of oil at the local oil supply company for $60. (The price in November of 2016 was $93.)

My A&P advised me that .032 gauge is normally used for the oil filter and the heavier gauge for the prop bolts.

I have a quick-release valve on the Cherokee and I picked up some tubing that is long enough to drain into the oil recycling container the is provided by my trash company. On the C210 I rig up a cardboard funnel and drain directly onto the top of the container.

I also picked up a filter cutter. It’s $99 well spent.

Several people have emailed me this and I don’t know who to credit for the images.

Giant Concrete Arrows That Point Your Way Across America…

Every so often, usually in the vast deserts of the American Southwest, a hiker or a backpacker will run across something puzzling: a large concrete arrow, as much as seventy feet in length, sitting in the middle of scrub-covered nowhere.

What are these giant arrows? Some kind of surveying mark? Landing beacons for flying saucers? Earth’s turn signals?

No, it’s…
The Transcontinental Air Mail Route.

On August 20, 1920, the United States opened its first coast-to-coast airmail delivery route, just 60 years after the Pony Express closed up shop. There were no good aviation charts in those days, so pilots had to eyeball their way across the country using landmarks. This meant that flying in bad weather was difficult, and night flying was just about impossible. The Postal Service solved the problem with the world’s first ground-based civilian navigation system: a series of lit beacons that would extend from New York to San Francisco. Every ten miles, pilots would pass a bright yellow concrete arrow. Each arrow would be surmounted by a 51-foot steel tower and lit by a million-candlepower rotating beacon. (A generator shed at the tail of each arrow powered the beacon.)

Now mail could get from the Atlantic to the Pacific not in a matter of weeks, but in just 30 hours or so. Even the dumbest of air mail pilots, it seems, could follow a series of bright yellow arrows straight out of a Tex Avery cartoon. By 1924, just a year after Congress funded it, the line of giant concrete markers stretched from Rock Springs, Wyoming to Cleveland, Ohio. The next summer, it reached all the way to New York, and by 1929 it spanned the continent uninterrupted, the envy of postal systems worldwide.

Radio and radar are, of course, infinitely less cool than a concrete Yellow Brick Road from sea to shining sea, but I think we all know how this story ends. New advances in communication and navigation technology made the big arrows obsolete, and the Commerce Department decommissioned the beacons in the 1940s. The steel towers were torn down and went to the war effort. But the hundreds of arrows remain. Their yellow paint is gone, their concrete cracks a little more with every winter frost, and no one crosses their path much, except for coyotes and tumbleweeds. But they’re still out there.

More information is available on this Wikipedia page.

Question for people who’ve been around aviation for a long while.

There’s a Beech Sierra in our hangar and I think it’s the first pre-2000s low-wing plane that I’ve ever seen with two doors. Modern designs all seem to have two doors, but except for Cessna, none of the older planes do. (Although the 36 series Bonanzas from 1968 on have a rear cargo door.) At the very least, why didn’t they put the door on the pilot’s side of the plane so you don’t have to crawl over the seat to get in?

Cessna has done it forever on their singles, but not at all on the twins. It’s just so much more convenient to load passengers. Especially older passengers who need a step stool to get into the plane. You can load them in, stow the stool, and get in on the pilot side. It seems that it would be even more useful on a low wing where older (or younger) passengers have a much harder time getting in. Plus, I like being the last one in the plane. I can do a final walk around to make sure nothing is left open or on the ground.

I have some minor corrosion and poorly painted spots on my Cherokee that my mechanic hasn’t been able to find the time to repair. I thought I’d do it myself so I looked online for instructions. This post is fairly detailed and matches what I’ve read elsewhere.

I can’t get alodine, but in a previous post, I mentioned that Zinc Chromate is still available, so I’ll use that. Several posts recommend against using steel wool since tiny fibers may remain in the aluminum and rust. They also recommend using a brass brush instead of steel. I don’t know if their concerns are justified, but it can’t hurt so that’s what I’m going to do.

I can also verify that you can’t paint when the temperature is too cold. The paint won’t cure and will just run off.

I’m getting ready to do some minor refinishing of my airplane and went to Aircraft Spruce to order some Zinc Chromate. They offer two colors—yellow and green. My mechanic uses the yellow but I’ve noticed that the interior of planes is usually green. This site explains why. “Zinc Chromate was used as an anti-corrosive barrier primer; it could be described as a sort of painted-on galvanizing. It has been developed by Ford Motor Company by the late 1920s, subsequently adopted in commercial aviation and later by the US Military.”

“Sometimes, Zinc Chromate was mixed with Lamp Black paste to give a bit more UV resistance (Zinc Chromate is very sensitive to photolitic reactions) and more durability in high wear areas.…Mixing with black gave greener tones, which, depending on the amount of black added could run from apple greens to medium olive greens.”

I don’t think it matters which color I use, but I ordered the green. This way it will match the inside of the plane if I decide to spray any inside.

I neglected to post about my app for iDevices that is now available on the Apple App Store.

This app is a collection of Glossaries found in FAA publications for pilots. It includes terms and acronyms from seven FAA books including: Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Airplane Flying Handbook, Instrument Flying Handbook, and Aviation Weather. It also includes the acronyms from the AIM, the complete Pilot/Controller Glossary, ATC Glossary, and definitions from the FARs.

The terms can be browsed by book or by category—Private, Instrument, Advanced, Weather, Aircraft, Human Factors, Non-Airplane, and CFI. A quiz section lets you test your knowledge of random terms.

Good discussion on BeechTalk about ATC separation of aircraft.

Separation is always provided between IFR aircraft.

Within the class B ATC is always responsible for separation, all aircraft are separated from each other, that’s why you need a clearance to enter if you are VFR. Within the class C IFR aircraft are separated from VFR aircraft. In all other airspace IFR aircraft are not separated from VFR aircraft. The actual weather is not relevant in that it does not change separation rules. – Scott Newpower, Air Traffic Controller

Update: 2017-02-25 As Dave explained in the comments, the width of airways is defined in Order 8260.3C. You can read the order or my snippet of it.

As near as I can tell, the FARs no longer specify the width of Federal Airways. But that was not always the case. A Google search finds this pdf, which says,

14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–03 Edition)
§ 71.75 Extent of Federal airways.
(1) Each Federal airway includes the airspace within parallel boundary lines 4 miles each side of the center line. Where an airway changes direction, it includes that airspace enclosed by ex- tending the boundary lines of the air- way segments until they meet

And the text of another search is:

The width of a Federal Airway from either side of the centerline is 4 NM. [2] Gleim #: 4.6.77 Source: FAR 71.75: Unless otherwise specified, Federal Airways …

If you look at the current FARs, there is no §71.75

My first thought is that it is now located in FAA Order 7400.9V but if it is, I can’t find it.

The FAA knowledge tests have variants of this question, and the answer is definitely b.
3. Airway courses are magnetic and distance depicted on charts is in nautical miles (NM). Generally, how wide is a federal airway (within 51 NM of the navaid)?
a. 2 NM each side of centerline
b. 4 NM each side of centerline
c. 6 NM each side of centerline
d. 8 NM each side of centerline

I know that’s the answer because I got it right several times. And the FAA-H-8083-15 Instrument Flying Handbook says:
“Each Federal airway is based on a centerline that extends from one NAVAID or intersection to another NAVAID specified for that airway. A Federal airway includes the airspace within parallel boundary lines 4 NM to each side of the centerline. As in all instrument flight, courses are magnetic, and distances are in NM.”

Another hint is that according to FAR 91.303 “No person may operate an aircraft in aerobatic flight— Within 4 nautical miles of the center line of any Federal airway”.

The AIM refers to the 4 NM width when discussing other topics but never explicitly defines a Federal Airway width.

5-3-5 c. …a course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed the width of the airway or route; i.e., 4 nautical miles each side of centerline.

3-3-3 a. 14 CFR Section 91.177 includes a requirement to remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 feet in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown.

So if you are taking a test or get asked by an examiner, the answer is 4 NM, but it would be nice to find the regulation that states this.

Update: The Instrument Flying Handbook has this to day about airways.

Federal Airways
The primary means for routing aircraft operating under
IFR is the Federal Airways System. Each Federal airway is
based on a centerline that extends from one navigational aid
(NAVAID)/waypoint/fix/intersection to another NAVAID/
waypoint/fix/intersection specified for that airway. A Federal
airway includes the airspace within parallel boundary lines
4 NM to each side of the centerline. As in all instrument
flight, courses are magnetic, and distances are in NM. The
airspace of a Federal airway has a floor of 1,200 feet AGL,
unless otherwise specified. A Federal airway does not include
the airspace of a prohibited area.

Keeping your iPad charged without introducing noise in your headsets can be challenging. Not all chargers work in all aircraft. I recently bought two PowerGen 7.2 Amp (36 Watt) Tri-Port USB chargers. They charge my iPad Pro in both the 12 volt Cherokee and 24 volt Cessna 210. I attached Monoprice cables to the panel with little clips to keep the wires out of the way.

I had purchased a MyGoFlight charger but it produced a lot of noise in the Cherokee and intermittent noise in the C210. It works in my car just fine though.

If you are really paranoid, the best way to keep your iPad safe from frying is to charge it before you go. But if you need to charge it, using an Apple iPad charger with an inverter seems to be the safest way to go. There is circuitry built into the charger that protects your iPad from over-voltage and spikes. Plugging directly into a USB power port doesn’t provide the same level of protection.

You don’t need to read the article, but the takeaway is that “Apple’s diminutive inch-cube iPhone charger reveals a technologically advanced flyback switching power supply that goes beyond the typical charger. It simply takes AC input (anything between 100 and 240 volts) and produce 5 watts of smooth 5 volt power, but the circuit to do this is surprisingly complex and innovative.”

So to prevent frying, plug a AC converter into your power outlet in the plane, then plug the iPhone charger into that. It’s a little bit more complicated than just plugging in the USB converter, but not a lot. 24 Volt inverters are a bit hard to find locally but Sporty’s sells an inverter for $50 that should do the job. And these guys have a a two-outlet inverter for $40. You can pick up 12 Volt inverters at Radio Shack and auto parts stores for about the same price.

Tune, Identify, Twist

That’s how you change to a new VOR and fly a new heading. Newer radios make the Identify part easy by displaying the identifier right on the radio. Old school pilots actually had to learn Morse Code to get their radio license. Nowadays, it’s not particularly useful. But if you want to learn, Aviatrix has some hints.

Part I
Part II

A recent AskTheCFI post had a student pilot asking about the TPA at a field (I66) when it’s not listed in the A/FD Chart Supplement. The answers weren’t particularly informative so I thought I’d write a short post.

If you look in the A/FD Chart Supplement for TPA’s you’ll see that the traffic pattern altitudes are usually either 800’AGl or 1,000’AGL—though because of terrain or noise sensitivity they can be different. In the case of I66 it is not listed in the A/FD Chart Supplement (Digital Chart Supplement (d-CS)) so you don’t know exactly what it will be. The Airplane Flying Handbook states that “The traffic pattern altitude is usually 1,000 feet above the elevation of the airport surface.” According to the AIM 4-3-3,

Key to traffic pattern operations
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000’ AGL is recommended pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .)

I’ve found it useful to use an EFB app to get airport elevation and TPA. ForeFlight lists the TPA as 2,034′ MSL which is 1,001’AGL—probably off by 1 foot due to some rounding somewhere. It’s a lot easier to use than the Digital Chart Supplement and you can access it in the cockpit. It also has frequencies, noise abatement procedures, sunrise/sunset, contacts, and lots of other good stuff.

As a rough guide for most Cessna tricycle singles, when you get into ground effect you can enter an attitude with the top of the cowling even with the top of the trees in the distance. This will give you a slight nose-up attitude. Then gradually increase backpressure to keep the cowling in that position relative to the horizon until the yoke is in your lap and you run out of elevator authority. Then the plane will touch down nicely. Keep the yoke back to aid with aerodyamic braking. And if you had a crosswind, keep the aileron at the stops into the wind. The common “gotcha” in this situation is knowing when you are in ground effect and ready to begin the flare.

When landing heavy singes, like the Cessna 210, keep a bit of power into the flare. It makes handling much easier and results in a smoother touchdown.

I second, third, fourth… what everyone is saying here. I consider myself a low-timer, so I’ll chime in. You specifically asked about gusts, but I suspect your question falls into the same bucket as crosswind landings. Your mileage may vary, but here are my thoughts: (and corrections are certainly welcome)

On the calm wind days, Step 1 is to really focus on touching down at the right airspeed and on the centerline. A wise man once told me to make that a point of pride, no matter how much experience you have (thanks, Doug).

If you’re reasonably consistent with that, it’s time for step 2: Get a good picture in your mind of what a good crosswind landing looks like. Unless you’re in an Ercoupe, a good crosswind landing will put the nose straight down the runway, with the wings “leaning” into the wind (i.e., a slip). In this configuration, you’ll touch down first on the upwind main, with the other wheels following thereafter. If your instructor has never shown this to you, you might want to get some dual to see it for yourself, but after you see it a time or two, it’s not difficult to start emulating it yourself in mild conditions.

A “eureka moment” for me was to realize that it’s actually pretty hard to crank in TOO MUCH aileron when the first wheel touches down. I’ve never tried it, but I bet it’s impossible to scrape that upwind wing on the ground if you’ve touched down at the appropriate speed (see step 1). So crank in the aileron and it’ll help keep you planted after touchdown.

With a good grasp on those two concepts, it’s no big deal to incrementally work up to higher winds. As for gusts, they just make you dance a little, but the control inputs are essentially the same.

At AMW, we have 60 degree crossing runways. I’ve built confidence by practicing landings on the crosswind runway (which also helps with radio communications and pattern etiquette, by the way), or going to a nearby field. 5 knots crosswind (even at 90 degrees) is barely different than a calm wind landing, so I sort of worked up from there. If you’re doing it right, you’ll find that the biggest defecit is in your confidence, rather than your ability.

By the way, another wise man told me that, contrary to popular belief, it’s okay to slip a Cessna with the flaps down (thanks, Tony). Check your manual, but it probably says that slips w/flaps are not recommended. They’re not prohibited. I’m told that the reason for the “not recommended” is a fairly benign oscillation that can occur if conditions are just right.

Power, Pitch, and Airspeed

There is a wonderful landing exercise I use with my student that instills near-perfect landings nearly every time. This exercise begins on the downwind leg of the traffic pattern.

In a typical training aircraft, e.g., C152, C172, Piper Warrior, setting power at 2,200RPM in trimmed, level flight will produce 90KIAS. Achieving this flight condition while on the downwind leg is the first task.

Approaching the base leg, a power reduction to 1,700RPM with 10 degrees of flaps produces a 600 f/m descent rate along with a slowing to 80KIAS.

Established on base leg, now with 20 degrees of flaps and a slight trim adjustment, further reduces airspeed to 70KIAS.

On final, a power reduction to 1,200RPM and 30 degrees of flaps will place the airplane over the runway threshold at 60 to 65 knots and in the correct flight attitude for a “greaser” landing, every time!

Keep the pattern tight . . .

The power, pitch, airspeed configuration described above assumes a close-in approach instead of the long airliner-type patterns taught by far too many flight schools and CFIs. Simple laws of aerodynamics, instead of yanking, banking, pushing and pulling on the yoke or stick, are used to produce a stabilized approach necessary for smooth landings every time.

“Far too many pilots begin watching the airspeed indicator, looking for takeoff speed. Bad move, in my opinion. I absolutely do not care what the speed is. My only concern is to allow the airplane to lift off and fly when it wants to. How? In the vast majority of these nosedragger aircraft, if you wait until some decent speed (visually, or by ‘feel’), then lift the nose until the nose gear strut extends fully, that attitude will serve you well for the liftoff and first few hundred feet of climb. Play with this a bit, see if you can lift the nose, feel where the strut “tops out,” then where it actually lifts the nosewheel off. There’s a pretty obvious difference in ‘feel’ between those two points. If you do this a couple of times, you will begin to see the exact attitude you need for the liftoff by looking at the cowling and the runway—while you look on down the runway for that deer, or another airplane pulling onto the runway. Once you know that ‘picture,’ you’ll use it, and the little ‘bump’ (as the nose strut reaches full extent) out won’t be needed.”

Hold that attitude after liftoff, eyes still outside…

When you are sure there will be no further contact with the runway, reach for the gear switch, feel it, think about it, and move it, but don’t look at it. If it’s a strange airplane, then wait until you have more ground clearance, then “peek for it.” Get out of the habit of looking down for it. Stay outside the cockpit. Sometime after the gear is up, and before reaching pattern altitude, glance at the airspeed, and make sure you’re roughly at the speed you want. If there’s a small error, who cares? If it’s larger, then make a mental note to correct that attitude on the next takeoff. If it’s really off, you forgot the pitot cover. None of these are problems, for that attitude will keep you out of trouble.”Link

Abort-Analysis Checklist

If we take the above and boil it down into an abbreviated mental checklist of parameters that must be met or we save the day by aborting the takeoff, we get something along the following lines:

Lineup Check

Are the trim tabs, flaps and fuel selector(s) properly positioned? If no, abort. If yes, continue.

Takeoff Roll

At full throttle, is the rpm is in the acceptable static range on a fixed-pitch prop airplane? With a constant-speed prop, are the manifold pressure, rpm and fuel flow where they should be for the elevation and temperature? For a turbocharged engine, are manifold pressure, rpm and fuel flow at redline? If not, abort. If yes, continue.
Airspeed indicator off the peg and moving without jerking within 5 to 10 seconds of going to full power? If no, abort. If yes, continue.
At the mid-field point on the runway, has the airplane reached at least 71 percent of the published speed for raising the nose? If no, abort. If yes, continue.
At the published speed for raising the nose for takeoff, can the yoke/stick be moved aft and does the nose begins to come up? If no, abort. If yes, continue.

It’s up to the airplane to demonstrate to us, as pilot in command, that it is capable of performing on takeoff. It’s up to us to assure that it is doing what it’s supposed to do and, if not, to abort the takeoff and live to fly another time. Aborting a takeoff isn’t a failure on the part of the pilot; it’s a pilot showing the right stuff by recognizing the wrong stuff and taking action to keep people alive. Link

14 CFR § 91.113 Right-of-way rules: Except water operations.

(a) Inapplicability. This section does not apply to the operation of an aircraft on water.

(b) General. When weather conditions permit, regardless of whether an operation is conducted under instrument flight rules or visual flight rules, vigilance shall be maintained by each person operating an aircraft so as to see and avoid other aircraft. When a rule of this section gives another aircraft the right-of-way, the pilot shall give way to that aircraft and may not pass over, under, or ahead of it unless well clear.

(c) In distress. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other air traffic.

(d) Converging. When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same altitude (except head-on, or nearly so), the aircraft to the other’s right has the right-of-way. If the aircraft are of different categories—

(1) A balloon has the right-of-way over any other category of aircraft;

(2) A glider has the right-of-way over an airship, powered parachute, weight-shift-control aircraft, airplane, or rotorcraft.

(3) An airship has the right-of-way over a powered parachute, weight-shift-control aircraft, airplane, or rotorcraft.

However, an aircraft towing or refueling other aircraft has the right-of-way over all other engine-driven aircraft.

(e) Approaching head-on. When aircraft are approaching each other head-on, or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.

(f) Overtaking. Each aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and each pilot of an overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right to pass well clear.

(g) Landing. Aircraft, while on final approach to land or while landing, have the right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operating on the surface, except that they shall not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway surface which has already landed and is attempting to make way for an aircraft on final approach. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land or to overtake that aircraft.

GND Mode

Setting the ground-speed recognition function that activates airborn/ground modes the GTX 330.

Now that we are required to have the transponder in ALT mode on the ground, I did the same thing with the ALT button and now it stays in ALT all the time.

Many POHs give the maneuvering speed at max gross weight, but the lighter the airplane , the lower V_a. A general rule is to decrease the speed by 1/2 the percentage decrease in weight.

You can find Maneuvering Speed in the POH or on the aircraft’s Type Certificate Data Sheet. For my Cessna 210 it is 135 MPH (117 Knots) at 3,800 lbs. Flying alone with full tanks the weight is about 3,000 lbs. The percentage decrease is 800/3800 = 26%. Divide by 2 to get 13%. A 13% reduction is 117 MPH (102 Kts). Empty weight on the 210 is 2,300 lbs so V_a when empty is reduced by 20% (1500/3800÷2) and is 108 a reduction of 27 MPH. Every 100 lb reduction from max gross weight is about 2 MPH reduction in V_a.

For my Cherokee 140 maneuvering speed is 129 MPH (112 Knots) at 2,150 lbs. Flying alone, with tanks at the tabs, the weight is about 1,850 lbs. The percentage decrease is 300/2150 = 14%. Divide by 2 to get 7%. A 7% reduction is 120 MPH (104 Kts). That works out to about 3 mph per 100 lbs.

A general rule of thumb then is that, in normal operations, you should reduce V_a by about 2-3 MPH for every 100 lbs below max gross weight.

If you can’t find the maneuvering speed, a general rule of thumb is that it is 1.7 times V_s1 (Clean stall speed). For the 210 V_s1 is 80 so V_a is 136 MPH. For the Cherokee V_s1 is 64 so V_a is 109 MPH. On most airplanes, this speed is around 6:30 on the airspeed indicator.

The FAA has issued an advisory circular that provides aircraft owners, operators, and pilots operating aircraft under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, with information for removal of paper aeronautical charts and other documentation from the cockpit through the use of either portable or installed cockpit displays (electronic flight bags (EFB)). It can be found at this link.

It references AC 120-76A that defines the EFBs that it references.

It’s not very long so you should read it, but the relevant part is as follows:

The in-flight use of an EFB/ECD in lieu of paper reference material is the decision of the aircraft operator and the pilot in command. Any Type A or Type B EFB application, as defined in AC 120-76A may be substituted for the paper equivalent. It requires no formal operational approval as long as the guidelines of this AC are followed.

A recent Opinion by the FAA Office of the Chief Counsel, changes my understanding of when you can file an IFR flight plan. I had been under the impression that both the plane and a pilot had to be IFR rated to file and fly under IFR, but his opinion states,

The FAA publishes lots of interesting info, but sometimes it’s hard to find. So I’m reposting this email for your edification.

Runway Status Lights Are Coming to an Airport Near You
Notice Number: NOTC3171

Runway Status Lights

What Are Runway Status Lights?
Runway Status Lights (RWSL) are a series of red in-pavement lights that warn pilots of high-speed aircraft or vehicles on runways. They operate independently of Air Traffic Control. Runway Status Lights have two states: ON (lights are illuminated red) and OFF (lights are off) and are switched automatically based on information from the airport surface surveillance systems. RWSL will improve airport safety by indicating when it is unsafe to enter, cross, or takeoff from a runway.
 
The RWSL system has two types of lights. Runway Entrance Lights (RELs) are installed at taxiways and Takeoff Hold Lights (THLs) on runways.
 
Runway Entrance Lights
Runway Entrance Lights (RELs) are a series of red in-pavement lights spaced evenly along the taxiway centerline from the taxiway hold line to the runway edge. One REL is placed before the hold line and one REL is placed near the runway centerline. RELs are directed toward the runway hold line and are oriented to be visible only to pilots entering or crossing the runway from that location. RELs that are ON (illuminated red) indicate that the runway ahead is not safe to enter or cross. Pilots should remain clear of a runway when RELs along their taxi route are illuminated. Lights that are off convey no meaning.
 
The system is not, at any time, intended to convey approval or clearance to proceed into a runway. Pilots remain obligated to comply with all ATC clearances, except when compliance would require crossing illuminated red RELs. In such a case, the crews should hold short of the runway for RELs, contact ATC, and await further instructions.   
 
Takeoff Hold Lights
The Takeoff Hold Light (THLs) system is composed of red in-pavement fixtures in a double row on either side of the runway centerline lighting. Fixtures are focused toward the arrival end of the runway at the “Line Up and Wait” point and extend in front of the holding aircraft beginning 375’ beyond the runway threshold and extending for 1,500’. Illuminated red lights provide a signal, to an aircraft in position for takeoff or rolling, that it is unsafe to takeoff because the runway is occupied or about to be occupied by another aircraft or ground vehicle. THLs that are ON (illuminated red) indicate that the runway ahead is not safe to takeoff. Pilots should refuse takeoff clearance if THLs are illuminated. Red THLs mean do not takeoff. Whenever a pilot observes the red lights of the THLs, the pilot will stop or remain stopped. The pilot will contact ATC for resolution if any clearance is in conflict with the lights. Lights that are off convey no meaning. The system is not, at any time, intended to convey approval or clearance to takeoff. Pilots must still receive an ATC clearance to takeoff. 
  
RWSL are in operation at DFW, SAN, LAX, BOS, and MCO. The system will be operational at PHX, IAH, SEA, IAD, and LAS in 2012 and will be installed at 23 major airports nationwide by 2016.
 
Pilots are encouraged to learn more about RWSL at: http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/technology/rwsl/

See this Notice in living color at https://www.faasafety.gov/files/notices/2011/Aug/RWSL.pdf
 

The note beside this Class Delta airspace says See NOTAMs/Directory for Class D/E (sfc) eff hrs. From the A/FD AIRSPACE: CLASS D svc (1400–0400Z‡) other times CLASS G. Unfortunately, this isn’t as clear as it seems. The entire Class D airspace (to 2,700′ MSL) doesn’t revert to Glass G because as the AIM states:

3.1.3.a When overlapping airspace designations apply to the same airspace, the operating rules associated with the more restrictive airspace designation apply.

So the airspace above 1,200′ is going to be Class E. This part is fairly obvious if you think about it. What’s not obvious is that at the end of the section of the AIM on Class D airspace it says:

3.2.5.b2 At those airports where the control tower does not operate 24 hours a day, the operating hours of the tower will be listed on the appropriate charts and in the A/FD. During the hours the tower is not in operation, the Class E surface area rules or a combination of Class E rules to 700 feet above ground level and Class G rules to the surface will become applicable. Check the A/FD for specifics.

The A/FD doesn’t really go into specifics but it will indicate whether the airspace reverts to Class E or G.

I can’t find any mention of the change in the FARs, but it could be there.

Notice that there is an extension to the Class Delta surface area. From the AIM 3-2-6.e.2

There are Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas designated for an airport. Such airspace provides controlled airspace to contain standard instrument approach procedures without imposing a communications requirement on pilots operating under VFR.

The extension is always Class E.

Pipistrel has introduced a 4-seat electric aircraft. The Taurus G4 holds four people in twp pods with a center mounted engine. Aero News has a good article about the details.

The design of this UAV isn’t particularly unusual, but its construction method is. It was printed on a 3d printer. Engineers at the University of Southampton designed and printed the craft.

And here’s one that I saw on the ramp this weekend. It’s Burt Rutan’s Boomerang. Tres Clements is flying it now after getting it back in flying condition. A team of volunteers brought it back to flying condition after nine years in storage. Tres did most of the restoration work on the airframe and Ryan Malherbe put in a whole new panel. Their story is here.

You’re supposed to say the first part of this to all passengers, especially examiners. The last part just makes sense to me.

As PIC I am responsible for the safety of the passengers and the safe operation of the aircraft. Please keep your seatbelt tightly fastened at all times during the flight. The harness slides into the buckle and by pulling on the buckle you can release both. You can remove the shoulder restraints during the flight, but I don’t recommend it. You can adjust your seat now, but do not adjust it during the flight, unless you ask first, because it can slide rapidly forward or backward. The door latches at the top. I’ll make sure it is latched before we take off. If there is an emergency and we need to leave the aircraft, push the latch forward and then pushing up on the lever in the door to open it. Do not leave the plane while the engine is running. Do not touch anything during the flight, especially do not grab the yoke to steady yourself if we encounter turbulence. Yours is connected to mine. The only thing in the front that you can touch is the air vent on the side of the door. If you are hot or starting to become airsick, turn it so that the outside air streams over your face. Look ahead at a point. Airsick bags are in the glove compartment. We are flying under Visual Flight Rules, which means that we are responsible for seeing and avoiding other aircraft. If you see a plane, please point it out to me using the hands of a clock as reference. We also get help in locating other aircraft and get instructions from ATC over the radio. If you hear talking on the radio, stop talking.

§ 91.107 Use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses, and child restraint systems.

(a) (1) No pilot may take off a U.S.-registered civil aircraft…unless the pilot in command of that aircraft ensures that each person on board is briefed on how to fasten and unfasten that person’s safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness.

(a) (3) …each person… must occupy an approved seat or berth with a safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness, properly secured about him or her during movement on the surface, takeoff, and landing.

From the Pilot Controller Glossary and Instrument Procedures Handbook:

Runway Heading

The magnetic direction that corresponds with the runway centerline extended, not the painted runway numbers on the runway. Pilots cleared to “fly or maintain runway heading” are expected to fly or maintain the published heading that corresponds with the extended centerline of the departure runway (until otherwise instructed by ATC), and are not to apply drift correction; e.g., RWY 4, actual magnetic heading of the runway centerline 044.22°, fly 044°.

I knew we aren’t supposed to apply drift correction when flying headings, but I didn’t know we were supposed to fly the actual runway heading not the runway number.

The FAA updated the Sample Airman Knowledge Test Questions on June 13, 2011. The question bank for Private, Instrument, Commercial, CFI, and Light Sport have new dates. The previous dates were January 31, 2011. There is no difference between the Private Pilot questions or answers for the two dates.

I check the site fairly frequently for updates and prior to January the last update that I found was July 6, 2009. There are no additions since that time and a bunch of deletions. Some of the deletions make sense, e.g. exact duplicates of questions, but there is a whole block of questions that are good questions but no longer in the test bank. Below are all the questions that were deleted. Numbers refer to the numbers in the 2009 test bank.

Dropped
104. PLT405 PVT
A chair-type parachute must have been packed by a certificated and appropriately rated parachute rigger within the preceding
A) 60 days. B) 90 days. C) 120 days.

113. PLT284 PVT When the term ‘light and variable’ is used in reference to a Winds Aloft Forecast, the coded group and windspeed is A) 0000 and less than 7 knots. B) 9900 and less than 5 knots. C) 9999 and less than 10 knots.

120. PLT075 PVT (Refer to figure 18.) The marginal weather in central Kentucky is due to low A) ceiling. B) visibility. C) ceiling and visibility.

123. PLT290 PVT What is indicated when a current CONVECTIVE SIGMET forecasts thunderstorms? A) Moderate thunderstorms covering 30 percent of the area. B) Moderate or severe turbulence. C) Thunderstorms obscured by massive cloud layers.

131. PLT493 PVT Which conditions result in the formation of frost? A) The temperature of the collecting surface is at or below freezing when small droplets of moisture fall on the surface. B) The temperature of the collecting surface is at or below the dewpoint of the adjacent air and the dewpoint is below freezing. C) The temperature of the surrounding air is at or below freezing when small drops of moisture fall on the collecting surface.

165. PLT116 PVT FAA advisory circulars (some free, others at cost) are available to all pilots and are obtained by A) distribution from the nearest FAA district office. B) ordering those desired from the Government Printing Office. C) subscribing to the Federal Register.

187. PLT407 PVT To act as pilot in command of an aircraft towing a glider, a pilot is required to have made within the preceding 12 months A) at least three flights as observer in a glider being towed by an aircraft. B) at least three flights in a powered glider. C) at least three actual or simulated glider tows while accompanied by a qualified pilot.

281. PLT514 PVT In addition to the standard briefing, what additional information should be asked of the weather briefer in order to evaluate soaring conditions? A) The upper soundings to determine the thermal index at all soaring levels. B) Dry adiabatic rate of cooling to determine the height of cloud bases. C) Moist adiabatic rate of cooling to determine the height of cloud tops.

197. PLT222 PVT When should pilots state their position on the airport when calling the tower for takeoff? A) When visibility is less than 1 mile. B) When parallel runways are in use. C) When departing from a runway intersection.

198. PLT435 PVT As standard operating practice, all inbound traffic to an airport without a control tower should continuously monitor the appropriate facility from a distance of A) 25 miles. B) 20 miles. C) 10 miles.

199. PLT141 PVT How can a military airport be identified at night? A) Alternate white and green light flashes. B) Dual peaked (two quick) white flashes between green flashes.
C) White flashing lights with steady green at the same location.

200. PLT141 PVT What is the purpose of the runway/runway hold position sign? A) Denotes entrance to runway from a taxiway. B) Denotes area protected for an aircraft approaching or departing a runway. C) Denotes intersecting runways.

201. PLT141 PVT The numbers 8 and 26 on the approach ends of the runway indicate that the runway is orientated approximately A) 008° and 026° true. B) 080° and 260° true. C) 080° and 260° magnetic.

202. PLT141 PVT What does the outbound destination sign identify? A) Identifies entrance to the runway from a taxiway. B) Identifies direction to take-off runways. C) Identifies runway on which an aircraft is located.

203. PLT141 PVT When approaching taxiway holding lines from the side with the continuous lines, the pilot A) may continue taxiing. B) should not cross the lines without ATC clearance. C) should continue taxiing until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the lines.

204. PLT141 PVT When approaching taxiway holding lines from the side with the continuous lines, the pilot A) may continue taxiing. B) should not cross the lines without ATC clearance. C) should continue taxiing until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the lines.

205. PLT196 PVT Absence of the sky condition and visibility on an ATIS broadcast indicates that A) weather conditions are at or above VFR minimums. B) the sky condition is clear and visibility is unrestricted. C) the ceiling is at least 5,000 feet and visibility is 5 miles or more.

206. PLT204 PVT From whom should a departing VFR aircraft request radar traffic information during ground operations? A) Clearance delivery. B) Tower, just before takeoff. C) Ground control, on initial contact.

207. PLT150 PVT The recommended entry position to an airport traffic pattern is A) 45° to the base leg just below traffic pattern altitude. B) to enter 45° at the midpoint of the downwind leg at traffic pattern altitude. C) to cross directly over the airport at traffic pattern altitude and join the downwind leg.

208. PLT509 PVT How does the wake turbulence vortex circulate around each wingtip? A) Inward, upward, and around each tip. B) Inward, upward, and counterclockwise. C) Outward, upward, and around each tip.

209. PLT393 PVT Flight through a restricted area should not be accomplished unless the pilot has A) filed an IFR flight plan. B) received prior authorization from the controlling agency. C) received prior permission from the commanding officer of the nearest military base.

210. PLT078 PVT (Refer to figure 53.) Which type radar service is provided to VFR aircraft at Lincoln Municipal? A) Sequencing to the primary Class C airport and standard separation. B) Sequencing to the primary Class C airport and conflict resolution so that radar targets do not touch, or 1,000 feet vertical separation. C) Sequencing to the primary Class C airport, traffic advisories, conflict resolution, and safety alerts.

211. PLT162 PVT When a control tower, located on an airport within Class D airspace, ceases operation for the day, what happens to the airspace designation? A) The airspace designation normally will not change. B) The airspace remains Class D airspace as long as a weather observer or automated weather system is available.
C) The airspace reverts to Class E or a combination of Class E and G airspace during the hours the tower is not in operation.

212. PLT162 PVT When a control tower, located on an airport within Class D airspace, ceases operation for the day, what happens to the airspace designation? A) The airspace designation normally will not change. B) The airspace remains Class D airspace as long as a weather observer or automated weather system is available. C) The airspace reverts to Class E or a combination of Class E and G airspace during the hours the tower is not in operation.

213. PLT161 PVT With certain exceptions, Class E airspace extends upward from either 700 feet or 1,200 feet AGL to, but does not include, A) 10,000 feet MSL. B) 14,500 feet MSL. C) 18,000 feet MSL.

214. PLT370 PVT An ATC clearance provides A) priority over all other traffic. B) adequate separation from all traffic. C) authorization to proceed under specified traffic conditions in controlled airspace.

215. PLT370 PVT TRSA Service in the terminal radar program provides A) IFR separation (1,000 feet vertical and 3 miles lateral) between all aircraft. B) warning to pilots when their aircraft are in unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or other aircraft. C) sequencing and separation for participating VFR aircraft.

216. PLT150 PVT Prior to entering an Airport Advisory Area, a pilot should A) monitor ATIS for weather and traffic advisories. B) contact approach control for vectors to the traffic pattern. C) contact the local FSS for airport and traffic advisories.

217. PLT194 PVT
How can you determine if another aircraft is on a collision course with your aircraft? A) The nose of each aircraft is pointed at the same point in space. B) The other aircraft will always appear to get larger and closer at a rapid rate. C) There will be no apparent relative motion between your aircraft and the other aircraft.

218. PLT194 PVT Most midair collision accidents occur during A) hazy days. B) clear days. C) cloudy nights.

219. PLT194 PVT Most midair collision accidents occur during A) hazy days. B) clear days. C) cloudy nights.

220. PLT208 PVT If an emergency situation requires a downwind landing, pilots should expect a faster A) airspeed at touchdown, a longer ground roll, and better control throughout the landing roll. B) groundspeed at touchdown, a longer ground roll, and the likelihood of overshooting the desired touchdown point. C) groundspeed at touchdown, a shorter ground roll, and the likelihood of undershooting the desired touchdown point.

221. PLT219 PVT (Refer to figure 63.) In flying the rectangular course, when would the aircraft be turned less than 90°? A) Corners 1 and 4. B) Corners 1 and 2. C) Corners 2 and 4.

222. PLT219 PVT (Refer to figure provided.) While practicing S-turns, a consistently smaller half-circle is made on one side of the road than on the other, and this turn is not completed before crossing the road or reference line. This would most likely occur in turn A) 1-2-3 because the bank is decreased too rapidly during the latter part of the turn. B) 4-5-6 because the bank is increased too rapidly during the early part of the turn. C) 4-5-6 because the bank is increased too slowly during the latter part of the turn.

223. PLT078 PVT (Refer to figure 53.) Traffic patterns in effect at Lincoln Municipal are A) to the right on Runway 17L and Runway 35L; to the left on Runway 17R and Runway 35R. B) to the left on Runway 17L and Runway 35L; to the right on Runway 17R and Runway 35R. C) to the right on Runways 14 – 32.

224. PLT281 PVT Information concerning parachute jumping sites may be found in the A) NOTAMs. B) Airport/Facility Directory. C) Graphic Notices and Supplemental Data.

225. PLT281 PVT The letters VHF/DF appearing in the Airport/Facility Directory for a certain airport indicate that A) this airport is designated as an airport of entry. B) the Flight Service Station has equipment with which to determine your direction from the station. C) this airport has a direct-line phone to the Flight Service Station.

226. PLT354 PVT How many satellites make up the Global Positioning System (GPS)? A) 22. B) 24. C) 25.

227. PLT354 PVT How many Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites are required to yield a three dimensional position (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and time solution? A) 4. B) 5. C) 6.

228. PLT362 PVT To use VHF/DF facilities for assistance in locating an aircraft’s position, the aircraft must have a A) VHF transmitter and receiver. B) 4096-code transponder. C) VOR receiver and DME.

229. PLT172 PVT Basic radar service in the terminal radar program is best described as A) safety alerts, traffic advisories, and limited vectoring to VFR aircraft. B) mandatory radar service provided by the Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS) program. C) wind-shear warning at participating airports.

230. PLT426 PVT What should an owner or operator know about Airworthiness Directives (AD’s)? A) They are mandatory. B) They are voluntary. C) For Informational purposes only.

231. PLT378 PVT May a pilot operate an aircraft that is not in compliance with an Airworthiness Directive (AD)? A) Yes, AD’s are only voluntary. B) Yes, if allowed by the AD. C) Yes, under VFR conditions only.

233. PLT375 PVT Who may perform preventive maintenance on an aircraft and approve it for return to service? 1. Student or Recreational pilot. 2. Private or Commercial pilot. 3. None of the above. A) 1. B) 2. C) Neither 1 or 2.

234. PLT375 PVT What regulation allows a private pilot to perform preventive maintenance? A) 14 CFR Part 91.403. B) 14 CFR Part 61.113. C) 14 CFR Part 43.7.

236. PLT369 PVT In which class of airspace is acrobatic flight prohibited? A) Class E airspace not designated for Federal Airways above 1,500 feet AGL. B) Class E airspace below 1,500 feet AGL. C) Class G airspace above 1,500 feet AGL.

237. PLT119 PVT Except in Alaska, during what time period should lighted position lights be displayed on an aircraft? A) End of evening civil twilight to the beginning of morning civil twilight. B) 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise. C) Sunset to sunrise.

238. PLT372 PVT An aircraft had a 100-hour inspection when the tachometer read 1259.6. When is the next 100-hour inspection due? A) 1349.6 hours. B) 1359.6 hours. C) 1369.6 hours.

239. PLT383 PVT Unless otherwise authorized, what is the maximum indicated airspeed at which a person may operate an aircraft below 10,000 feet MSL? A) 200 knots. B) 250 knots. C) 288 knots.

240. PLT163 PVT During operations outside controlled airspace at altitudes of more than 1,200 feet AGL, but less than 10,000 feet MSL, the minimum flight visibility for VFR flight at night is A) 1 mile. B) 3 miles. C) 5 miles.

241. PLT163 PVT During operations outside controlled airspace at altitudes of more than 1,200 feet AGL, but less than 10,000 feet MSL, the minimum distance below clouds requirement for VFR flight at night is A) 500 feet. B) 1,000 feet. C) 1,500 feet.

242. PLT163 PVT The minimum flight visibility required for VFR flights above 10,000 feet MSL and more than 1,200 feet AGL in controlled airspace is A) 1 mile. B) 3 miles. C) 5 miles.

243. PLT374 PVT Who is responsible for ensuring Airworthiness Directives (AD’s) are complied with? A) Owner or operator. B) Mechanic with inspection authorization (IA). C) Repair station.

244. PLT377 PVT The airworthiness of an aircraft can be determined by a preflight inspection and a A) review of the maintenance records. B) statement from the owner or operator that the aircraft is airworthy. C) log book endorsement from a flight instructor.

246. PLT170 PVT While operating in class D airspace, each pilot of an aircraft approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator (VASI) shall A) maintain a 3° glide until approximately 1/2 mile to the runway before going below the VASI. B) maintain an altitude at or above the glide slope until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing. C) stay high until the runway can be reached in a power-off landing.

247. PLT372 PVT An aircraft`s annual condition inspection was performed on July 12, this year. The next annual inspection will be due no later than A) July 1, next year. B) July 13, next year. C) July 31, next year.

248. PLT430 PVT Except when necessary for takeoff or landing, what is the minimum safe altitude for a pilot to operate an aircraft anywhere? A) An altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface. B) An altitude of 500 feet above the surface and no closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure. C) An altitude of 500 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 1,000 feet.

251. PLT438 PVT When operating an aircraft at cabin pressure altitudes above 12,500 feet MSL up to and including 14,000 feet MSL, supplemental oxygen shall be used during A) the entire flight time at those altitudes. B) that flight time in excess of 10 minutes at those altitudes. C) that flight time in excess of 30 minutes at those altitudes.

252. PLT508 PVT Maintenance records show the last transponder inspection was performed on September 1,2006. The next inspection will be due no later than A) September 30, 2007. B) September 1, 2008. C) September 30, 2008.

253. PLT402 PVT When are non-rechargeable batteries of an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) required to be replaced? A) Every 24 months. B) When 50 percent of their useful life expires. C) At the time of each 100-hour or annual inspection.

254. PLT402 PVT When must batteries in an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) be replaced or recharged, if rechargeable? A) After any inadvertent activation of the ELT. B) When the ELT has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour. C) When the ELT can no longer be heard over the airplane’s communication radio receiver.

255. PLT426 PVT No person may use an ATC transponder unless it has been tested and inspected within at least the preceding A) 6 calendar months. B) 12 calendar months. C) 24 calendar months.

256. PLT467 PVT Which cruising altitude is appropriate for a VFR flight on a magnetic course of 135°? A) Even thousandths. B) Even thousandths plus 500 feet. C) Odd thousandths plus 500 feet.

257. PLT274 PVT To determine the freezing level and areas of probable icing aloft,the pilot should refer to the A) Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories. B) Weather Depiction Chart. C) Area Forecast.

258. PLT081 PVT (Refer to figure 16.) What sky conditon and visibility are forecast for upper Michigan in the eastern portions after 2300Z? A) Ceiling 1,000 feet overcast and 3 to 5 statute miles visibility. B) Ceiling 1,000 feet overcast and 3 to 5 nautical miles visibility. C) Ceiling 100 feet overcast and 3 to 5 statute miles visibility.

259. PLT291 PVT The section of the Area Forecast entitled ‘VFR CLDS/ WX’ contains a general description of A) cloudiness and weather significant to flight operations broken down by states or other geographical areas. B) forecast sky cover, cloud tops, visibility, and obstructions to vision along specific routes. C) clouds and weather which cover an area greater than 3,000 square miles and is significant to VFR flight operations.

260. PLT081 PVT (Refer to figure 16.) What is the outlook for the southern half of Indiana after 0700Z? A) Scattered clouds at 3,000 feet AGL. B) Scattered clouds at 10,000 feet. C) VFR.

261. PLT291 PVT From which primary source should information be obtained regarding expected weather at the estimated time of arrival if your destination has no Terminal Forecast? A) Low-Level Prognostic Chart. B) Weather Depiction Chart. C) Area Forecast.

262. PLT514 PVT To best determine general forecast weather conditions over several states, the pilot should refer to A) Aviation Area Forecasts. B) Weather Depiction Charts. C) Satellite Maps.

263. PLT081 PVT (Refer to figure 16.) The Chicago FA forecast section is valid until the twenty-fifth at A) 0800Z. B) 1400Z. C) 1945Z.

The FAA Safety Team sends emails from time to time that contain useful information for pilots. Unfortunately, they don’t seem to archive the information anywhere. This is Safety Tip: NOTC2917

Pilot altitude deviations often occur when flying a published departure or standard arrival procedure. Many procedures have published altitudes that ATC expects the pilot to follow. A thorough understanding of the following ATC phraseology and ILS altitude information will reduce deviations and subsequent danger to pilots and passengers.

STAR Phraseology

“DESCEND AND MAINTAIN”- Instructs the pilot to descend now (at a standard rate) to the newly assigned altitude and maintain that altitude until a new altitude assignment is received. The pilot will disregard all altitudes published on the STAR.

“DESCEND VIA” – Instructs a pilot to vertically navigate on the STAR and comply with published speeds.

“RESUME THE ARRIVAL” – Instructs a pilot to rejoin the lateral confines of the arrival only. Previously issued speeds and altitudes are still required.

SID Phraseology

“CLIMB AND MAINTAIN” – Instructs the aircraft to climb now (at a standard rate) to the newly assigned altitude and maintain that altitude until a new altitude assignment is received. Pilots will disregard all altitudes published on the SID.

“RESUME NORMAL SPEED” – Instructs a pilot to comply with speeds published on the SID.

“DELETE SPEED RESTRICTIONS” – Instructs the pilot to disregard all previously issued speeds including speeds on upcoming portions of an RNAV SID.

“RESUME THE DEPARTURE” – Instructs a pilot to rejoin the lateral confines of the departure only. Previously issued speeds and altitudes are still required.

ILS Altitudes

A Precision Final Approach Fix (PFAF) and/or a Glideslope Intercept Point defines the final approach segment (the end of the “feather”) as depicted in the Profile View on the approach plate. From the PFAF or Glideslope Intercept Point to the runway, use of the approach mode (APP) is the proper way to navigate the ILS. Without explicit guidance otherwise, there is no provision for capturing the glideslope beyond the PFAF or Glideslope Intercept Point and all altitude constraints must be met. Published altitudes at fixes outside of the Precision Final Approach Fix are part of the initial or intermediate segments of the approach and provide vertical separation from obstructions or other aircraft. An extension of the glideslope may not satisfy the minimum altitudes published outside the PFAF.

A review of Chapter 5 in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) can refresh your understanding of Departure, Enroute, and Arrival Procedures.

Weather fronts are as familiar as rain. For those who live outside of Earth’s tropics, the movement of warm and cold masses of air creates the weather, and when the two clash, it often rains. Understanding what happens when cold and warm air meet (cold and warm fronts) has given meteorologists the ability to predict the weather. Read more at NASAs Earth Observatory site.

I stumbled on this site that lists Aviation Museums around the world. Worth checking out.

This collection of photos is a good place to waste a few hours.

There is an abandoned Fouga Magister next to my plane and while looking up more information on it we stumbled across Warbird Alley.

Mammatus are most often associated with the anvil cloud that extends from a cumulonimbus, but may also be found under altocumulus, altostratus, stratocumulus, and cirrus clouds, as well as volcanic ash clouds. In the United States, sky gazers may be most familiar with the very distinct and more common cumulonimbus mammatus. When occurring in cumulonimbus, mammatus are often indicative of a particularly strong storm or maybe even a tornadic storm. Due to the intensely sheared environment in which mammatus form, aviators are strongly cautioned to avoid cumulonimbus with mammatus. Source

 Over Olympic Valley

 Over Mexico

Patrick Smith has an interesting post about icing, how it affects the airplane and the airlines, and a bit about accidents due to icing.

Snow will not stick to an airplane during flight. Ice, however, is another story. Owing to aerodynamic forces, it tends to adhere to the thinner, lower-profile areas, and not to larger expanses. It will build on the forward edges of the wings and tail, for example, around engine inlets and on various antennae and probes. Left unchecked it can damage engines, throw propeller assemblies off balance, and rob the wings of precious lift. In a worst-case scenario it can induce a full-on aerodynamic stall — the point when a wing essentially ceases to fly.

Airframe ice comes in three basic flavors: rime, clear and mixed. Rime is the common one, appearing as a sort of white fuzz. The rate at which ice accretes is graded from “trace” to “severe.” Severe icing, most commonly encountered when flying through freezing rain, is a killer. But it’s also rare, and tends to exist in thin bands that are easy to avoid or fly out of. On the whole, in-flight icing is considerably more of a threat to smaller noncommercial planes than it is to airliners — jets especially. Even in the heaviest precipitation it is uncommon to see more than a trace amount of rime on a jetliner.

Read the whole thing at Ask the Pilot on Salon.

PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing AIM 7−1−20 has some good information as well.

b. A pilot can expect icing when flying in visible precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets, and the temperature is between +02 and −10 degrees Celsius. When icing is detected, a pilot should do one of two things, particularly if the aircraft is not equipped with deicing equipment; get out of the area of precipitation; or go to an altitude where the temperature is above freezing. This “warmer” altitude may not always be a lower altitude. Proper preflight action includes obtaining information on the freezing level and the above freezing levels in precipitation areas. Report icing to ATC, and if operating IFR, request new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard. Be sure to give the type of aircraft to ATC when reporting icing.

1. Trace. Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation slightly greater than sublimation. Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not utilized unless encountered for an extended period of time (over 1 hour).

2. Light. The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this environment (over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing equipment is used.

3. Moderate. The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or flight diversion is necessary.

4. Severe. The rate of accumulation is such that ice protection systems fail to remove the accumulation of ice, or ice accumulates in locations not normally prone to icing, such as areas aft of protected surfaces and any other areas identified by the manufacturer. Immediate exit from the condition is necessary.

Rime ice. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets.

Clear ice. A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large supercooled water droplets.

Mixed Ice. Simultaneous appearance or a combination of rime and glaze ice characteristics.

There’s a huge storm in the east right now. Here’s the METAR and TAF for LaGuardia.

Update: Here’s a picture from space of the snow on the ground,

Output produced by METARs form (0456 UTC 27 December 2010)
found at http://aviationweather.gov/adds/metars/index.php

KLGA 270451Z 33031G40KT 1/4SM R04/2000V2800FT SN BLSN VV001 M04/M07 A2915 RMK AO2 PK WND 33045/0436 PRESFR SLP871 SNINCR 1/10 P0003 T10441072 400001050 $
KLGA 270248Z 2703/2724 35031G46KT 1/4SM +SN BLSN FZFG VV001CB
TEMPO 2703/2706 VV002CB
FM270600 33031G42KT 1/4SM +SN BLSN FZFG VV002
TEMPO 2709/2711 1/2SM SN BLSN FZFG SCT002 OVC008
FM271100 32030G40KT 1 1/2SM -SN BLSN BR SCT008 OVC015
FM271300 32030G40KT 3SM -SN BLSN BR BKN020
FM271500 32030G40KT 6SM BLSN BR SCT020 BKN070
FM272100 32026G36KT 6SM BLSN FEW040

And here’s Boston.

KBOS 270454Z 01024G30KT 1/4SM R04R/2200V3500FT +SN FZFG VV001 M03/M04 A2915 RMK AO2 PK WND 01030/0452 SLP872 P0006 T10281039 400001050 $
KBOS 270401Z 2704/2806 03025G45KT 1/2SM SN OVC002
FM270900 01025G45KT 2SM -SN OVC008
FM271200 35020G44KT 3SM -SN OVC012
FM271700 32027G44KT P6SM OVC015
FM272100 30025G43KT P6SM OVC050
FM280400 30023G36KT P6SM SCT050

And here’s Providence, RI

Output produced by METARs form (0535 UTC 27 December 2010)
found at http://aviationweather.gov/adds/metars/index.php

KPVD 270451Z 02029G40KT 1/2SM R05/3500V5000FT SN BLSN FZFG SCT003 BKN010 OVC018 M03/M04 A2898 RMK AO2 PK WND 01044/0435 PRESFR SLP814 SNINCR 1/8 P0007 T10281039 410221050 $
KPVD 270146Z 2702/2724 02026G41KT 1/4SM +SN OVC004
FM270600 02026G43KT 1SM -SN OVC008
FM270900 01021G41KT 3SM -SN OVC008
FM271600 33025G43KT P6SM OVC015
FM271800 32025G40KT P6SM OVC025
FM272100 32022G40KT P6SM BKN050

Translated.

On a recent November morning, around 8:30, I went over to the airport to practice slow flight with our new vortex generators. Since I was there I wiped the dew and bugs off of the Cherokee. We’d had some rain so the dew was pretty thick. While I was wiping the dew off of the pilot side wing, I notice that it wouldn’t come off of the wing root. The root was still in the shade of the fuselage and even though the low temperature was in the high 30’s the previous night there was still a substantial amount of ice on the wing. The sparkling clear night allowed the heat from the airplane to radiate out into space and cooled the airplane to below freezing. As the dew condensed, it turned to ice.

Had I been there an hour earlier, I suspect that both wings would have been covered in clear ice that looked a lot like dew. In colder climates, frost on the wings is regular occurrence in the winter and can be deadly.

AC 135-17 PILOT GUIDE Small Aircraft Ground Deicing
Test data indicate that ice, snow, or frost formations having thickness and surface roughness similar to medium or course sandpaper on the leading edge and upper surfaces of a wing can reduce wing lift by as much as 30 percent and increase drag by 40 percent.

Larger accretions can reduce lift even more and can increase drag by 80 percent or more. AOPA

Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge p 10-14
DEW AND FROST On cool, calm nights, the temperature of the ground and objects on the surface can cause temperatures of the surrounding air to drop below the dewpoint. When this occurs, the moisture in the air condenses and deposits itself on the ground, buildings, and other objects like cars and aircraft. This moisture is known as dew and sometimes can be seen on grass in the morning. If the temperature is below freezing, the moisture will be deposited in the form of frost. While dew poses no threat to an aircraft, frost poses a definite flight safety hazard. Frost disrupts the flow of air over the wing and can drastically reduce the production of lift. It also increases drag, which, when combined with lowered lift production, can eliminate the ability to take off. An aircraft must be thoroughly cleaned and free of frost prior to beginning a flight.

The Knowledge Tests have several questions on frost.

Private
Q: How will frost on the wings of an airplane affect takeoff performance?
A: Frost will disrupt the smooth flow of air over the wing, adversely affecting its lifting capability.

Q: Which conditions result in the formation of frost?
A: The temperature of the collecting surface is at or below the dewpoint of the adjacent air and the dewpoint is below freezing.

Q: Why is frost considered hazardous to flight?
A: Frost spoils the smooth flow of air over the wings, thereby decreasing lifting capability.

Instrument
Q: Test data indicate that ice, snow, or frost having a thickness and roughness similar to medium or coarse sandpaper on the leading edge and upper surface of an airfoil can
A: reduce lift by as much as 30 percent and increase drag by 40 percent.

Q: Why is frost considered hazardous to flight operation?
A: Frost causes early airflow separation resulting in a loss of lift.

Q: Which conditions result in the formation of frost?
A: Temperature of the collecting surface is below the dewpoint of surrounding air and the dewpoint is colder than freezing.

Commercial
Q: Frost covering the upper surface of an airplane wing usually will cause
A: the airplane to stall at an angle of attack that is lower than normal.

fractus /ˈfræktəs/
Adjective
Link]

pogonip /ˈpɒgənɪp/
Noun
An ice fog that forms in the mountain valleys of the western U.S.

“The people here are like your mothers and your grandmothers – would you want them sleeping out in Pogonip on a cold night like tonight?” Martinez asked. [Link]

haboob
Noun
A violent sandstorm or dust storm in the deserts of Arabia, North Africa, India, or North America.

Haboob Wind Storm Blankets Phoenix Area With Choking Red Dust
[Link]

petrichor /ˈpɛtɹɪkɚ/
Noun
The distinctive scent which accompanies the first rain after a long warm dry spell.
The yellow organic oil that yields this scent.

The smell itself comes about when increased humidity – a pre-cursor to rain – fills the pores of stones (rocks, soil, etc) with tiny amounts of water.

While it’s only a minuscule amount, it is enough to flush the oil from the stone and release petrichor into the air. This is further accelerated when actual rain arrives and makes contact with the earth, spreading the scent into the wind.
[Link]

A recent query on the Cessna Pilots Association forum reminded me that I wanted to address the procedures prior to the takeoff. Frank Fisher and Paul Knapp contributed answers similar to my own procedures and I’ve edited them below and interspersed Mike Busch’s thoughts on the mag check. John Godwin at Pilots of America had some good thoughts on cycling the prop.

[JS] All of the engines that I’ve flown are happiest with aggressive leaning on the ground during taxi and runup. And by aggressive we mean that applying the throttle causes the engine to stumble. We paid for lots of plug cleanings before we learned that lesson.

[PK] For that same reason, at runup, I lean so far that if I push the throttle any farther forward the engine stumbles. This gives me a very, very lean mixture for runup which is more likely to indicate incipient problems than a richer mixture. And, it protects me from doing something stupid like taking off with a lean mixture at sea level.

[JS] You’ll need to enrichen the mixture a bit to get the RPM to the manufacturer specified run-up RPM—but you don’t need to go full rich. The engine is going to be running well below 65% power at the target RPM, so leaning is appropriate and gives you a better estimate as to how the engine will perform in flight. There should be some drop on each mag but no more than what the engine manufacturer specifies. If there is no drop, you may have an improperly grounded mag.

[MB] If you have an engine monitor you should focus primarily on the engine monitor, not the tachometer, when performing the mag check. What you should be looking for is all EGT bars rising and none falling when you switch from both mags to one mag. The EGT rise will typically be 50 to 100 degrees F, but the exact amount of rise is not critical. [JS] This occurs because the fuel takes longer to burn with just one plug and so is hotter when exiting the cylinder.

If you’re flying a plane with a constant-speed prop, you’ll want to cycle it. While you’re doing it look a the oil pressure. It should show little or no change if you have enough oil. The manifold pressure .. should show an slight increase because the pitch changed. And the RPM should show decrease verifying that the pitch changed.

Controls free and correct should have been tested just after engine start. The remainder of your flight instruments should have been checked during taxi (airspeed indicator for zero; attitude indicator erect and steady; altimeter for field elevation +/- 75′; turn coordinator banking in the direction of turns while the inclinometer slips inside and skids outside; heading indicator for proper tracking during turns; and VSI somewhere near zero.

[JS] Set the DG after it has a chance to stabilize. The magnetic compass and DG should be opposite the runway heading when taxiing parallel to the takeoff runway.

[PK] On my O-200, for runup I lean it to the point where it will run smoothly but if I push the throttle in any farther it will stumble. For taxi, my mixture is so lean that I couldn’t reach runup RPMs if I tried. If you can do your runup at your lean taxi setting, then you’re not leaning nearly enough. The goal in aggressive ground leaning is two fold: to protect the engine from lead deposits that form at cooler CHTs, but also to lean so far that there is absolutely no way you could inadvertently takeoff at that setting.

[JS] Just before I call for takeoff clearance I close the doors and windows and check that they’re locked, set the flaps if necessary, and put my hand on the mixture. Then I’m ready to go when given my clearance.